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A  MANUAL  OF  SHOEMAKING 


An  Old-Fashioned  Shoemaker.     Frontispiece. 


A  MANUAL 


OF 


SHOEMAKma 


AND 


LEATHEK  AND  RUBBEE 
PEODUCTS 


BY 

WILLIAM  H.   DOOLEY 

PRESrCIPAL  OF  THE   LOWELL   INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL 


ILLUSTRATED 


BOSTON 
LITTLE,  BROWN,  AND  COMPANY 

1912 


1    <^^. 


Copyright,  1912, 
By  Little,  Brown,  and  Company. 


All  rights  reserved. 
Published,  September,  1912. 


Bsmmooum 


PREFACE 

The  author  was  asked  in  1908  by  the 
Lynn  Commission  on  Industrial  Education 
to  make  an  investigation  of  European  shoe 
schools  and  to  assist  the  Commission  in 
preparing  a  course  of  study  for  the  proposed 
shoe  school  in  the  city  of  Lynn.  A  close 
investigation  showed  that  there  were  sev- 
eral textbooks  on  shoemaking  published  in 
Europe,  but  that  no  general  textbook  on 
shoemaking  had  been  issued  in  this  country 
adapted  to  meet  the  needs  of  industrial, 
trade,  and  commercial  schools  or  those  who 
have  just  entered  the  rubber,  shoe,  and 
leather  trades.  This  book  is  written  to  meet 
this  need.     Others  may  find  it  of  interest. 

The  author  is  under  obligations  to  the 
following  persons  and  firms  for  information 
and  assistance  in  preparing  the  book,  and 

[v] 


PREFACE 

for  permission  to  reproduce  photographs 
and  information  from  their  publications: 
Mr.  J.  H.  Finn,  Mr.  Frank  L.  West,  Head 
of  Shoemaking  Department,  Tuskegee,  Ala., 
Mr.  Louis  Fleming,  Mr.  F.  Garrison,  Presi- 
dent of  Shoe  and  Leather  Gazette,  Mr.  Arthur 
L.  Evans,  The  Shoeman,  Mr.  Charles  F. 
Cahill,  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company, 
Hood  Rubber  Company,  Bliss  Shoe  Com- 
pany, American  Hide  and  Leather  Com- 
pany, Regal  Shoe  Company,  the  publishers 
of  Hide  and  Leather,  American  Shoemaking, 
Shoe  Repairing,  Boot  and  Shoe  Recorder,  The 
Weekly  Bulletin,  and  the  New  York  Leather 
Belting  Company. 

In  addition,  the  author  desires  to  ac- 
knowledge his  indebtedness  to  the  great 
body  of  foreign  literature  on  the  different 
subjects  from  which  information  has  been 
obtained. 


[vi] 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface          .        .        .        .        .        .        .  v 

CHAPTER 

I.     Fundamental  Shoe  Terms        .        .  1 

II.     Hides  and  their  Treatment    .         .  4 

III.  Processes  of  Tanning      ...  21 

IV.  The  Anatomy  of  the  Foot      .         .  77 
V.     How  Shoe  Styles  are  Made   .         .  93 

VI.     Departments  of  a  Shoe  Factory    .  103 

VII.     McKay  and  Turned  Shoes       .         .  144 

VIII.     Old-fashioned  Shoemaking  and  Re- 
pairing      162 

IX.     Leather  and  Shoemaking  Terms     .  177 

X.     Leather  Products  Manufacture    .  218 

XL     Rubber     Shoe    Manufacture    and 

Terms 228 

XII.     History  of  Footwear       .        .        .  250 

Index     . .281 


[vii] 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


An  Old-fashioned  Shoemaker  .         .         Frontispiece 

Facing  Page 
Names  of  the  Different  Parts  of  Foot  Wear    .         2 

Green-salted  Calfskin       .         .         .         .         .12 

Tanning  Process       .         .         .         .         .         .24 

Tanning  Process,  showing  Rotating  Drums   .       28 

Sole  Leather  Offal 34 

Bones  and  Joints  of  the  Human  Foot       .         .       78 

The  Different  Parts  of  the  Foot  and  Ankle      .       78 

A  Last  in  Three  Stages  of  Manufacture  .         .       98 

A  Modern  Shoe  Factory  .         .         .         .104 

A  Skin  Divided  before  Cutting         .         .         .112 

Cutting  Leather       .         .         .         .         .         .116 

Goodyear  Stitching  .         .         .         .         .     116 

Stock  Fitting  Room 120 

Lasting    . 124 

Welting 124 

Rough  Rounding 128 

Edge  Trimming 128 

Leveling .         .     132 

Heeling .132 

[ix] 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Sole  Scouring  . 

Heel  Shaping   . 

Ironing    .... 

Packing  .... 

Cross  Sections  of  Welt  Shoe  and  McKay  Sewed 
Shoe  ..... 

Stitching  ..... 

Tacking  ...... 

Cross  Section  of  Standard  Screwed  Shoe 

Side  of  Leather  divided  as  to  Quality 

Cross  Section  of  McKay  Sewed  Shoe 

Cross  Section  of  Goodyear  Welt  Shoe 

Crude  Rubber 

Washing  and  Drying 

Calender  Room 

Cutting  Room 

Putting  together  the  Parts  of 

Heel-making  Department 

Parts  of  a  Rubber  Boot  . 

Insole  for  Hand-sewed  Shoe 

Hand-sewed  Shoe     .         .    "» 

Stitching  Room  of  a  German  Shoe  Factory 


Facing  Page 
136 

136 


a  Rubber  Shoe 


/ 


140 
140 

144 

148 
148 
160 
168 
200 
200 
228 
232 
234 
236 
240 
242 
248 
264 
264 
276 


[x] 


SHOEMAKING 

CHAPTER  ONE 

FUNDAMENTAL   SHOE    TERMS 

BEFORE  explaining  the  manufacture  of 
shoes,  it  is  necessary  to  fix  definitely  in 
our  minds  the  names  of  their  different  parts. 
Examine  your  shoes  and  note  the  parts  that 
are  here  described. 

The  bottom  of  the  shoe  is  called  the  sole. 
The  part  above  the  sole  is  called  the  upper. 
The  top  of  the  shoe  is  that  part  measured 
by  the  lacing  which  covers  the  ankle  and 
the  instep.  The  vamp  is  that  section  which 
covers  the  sides  of  the  foot  and  the  toes. 
The  shank  is  that  part  of  the  sole  of  the  shoe 
between  the  heel  and  the  ball.  This  name 
is  often  applied  to  a  piece  of  metal  or  other 
substance  in  that  part  of  the  sole,  intended 
to  give  support  to  the  arch  of  the  foot.     The 

[1] 


FUNDAIVIENTAL  SHOE  TERMS 

throat  of  the  vamp  is  that  part  which  curves 
around  the  lower  edge  of  the  top,  where 
the  lacing  starts. 

Backstay  is  a  term  used  to  denote  a  strip 
of  leather  covering  and  strengthening  the 
back  seam  of  the  shoe.  Quarter  is  a  term 
used  mostly  in  low  shoes  to  denote  the  rear 
part  of  the  upper  when  a  full  vamp  is  not 
used.  Button  fly  is  the  portion  of  the  upper 
containing  the  buttonholes  of  a  button  shoe. 
Tip  is  the  toe  piece  of  a  shoe,  stitched  to 
the  vamp  and  outside  of  it.  The  lace  stay 
is  a  term  used  to  denote  a  strip  of  leather 
reenforcing  the  eyelet  holes.  Tongue  de- 
notes a  narrow  strip  of  leather  used  on  all 
lace  shoes  to  protect  the  instep  from  the 
lacing  and  weather. 

Foxing  is  the  name  applied  to  leather  of 
the  upper  that  extends  from  the  sole  to 
the  laces  in  front,  and  to  about  the  height 
of  the  counter  in  the  back,  being  the  length 
of  the  upper.  It  may  be  in  one  or  more 
pieces,  and  is  often  cut  down  to  the  shank 

[2] 


(V 


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02 
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S-i 
CD 


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a 


FUNDAMENTAL  SHOE  TERMS 

in  circular  form.  If  in  two  pieces,  that  part 
covering  the  counter  is  called  a  heel  fox. 
Overlay  is  a  term  applied  to  leather  attached 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  vamp  of  a  slipper. 
The  breast  of  the  heel  is  the  inner  part  of 
the  heel,  that  is,  the  section  nearest  the 
shank. 


[3] 


CHAPTER  TWO 

HIDES    AND    THEIR    TREATMENT 

IF  we  examine  our  shoes,  we  will  find 
that  the  different  parts  are  composed  of 
material  called  leather.  The  bottom  of  the 
shoe  is  of  hard  leather,  while  the  part  above 
the  sole  is  of  a  softer,  more  pliable  leather. 
This  leather  is  nothing  more  than  the  hides 
of  different  animals  treated  in  such  a  way 
as  to  remove  the  fat  and  the  hair. 

After  the  hides  have  been  taken  from  the 
dead  body  of  the  animal,  they  are  quite 
heavily  salted  to  preserve  them  from  spoil- 
ing. In  this  salted  condition  they  are 
shipped  to  the  tanneries. 

The  process  or  series  of  processes  by 
which  the  hides  and  skins  of  animals  are 
converted  into  leather  is  called  tanning. 
The  process  may  be  divided  into  three 
groups  of  subprocesses  as  follows :  — 

[4] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

Beamhouse  process,  which  removes  the 
hair  from  the  hides  and  prepares  them  for 
the  actual  process  of  the  tanning  or  conver- 
sion into  leather;  tanning,  which  converts 
the  raw  hide  into  leather;  and  finishing, 
which  involves  a  number  of  operations,  the 
objects  of  which  are  to  give  the  leather  the 
color  that  may  be  desired  and  also  to  make 
it  of  uniform  thickness,  and  impart  to  it  the 
softness  and  the  finish  that  is  required  for 
a  particular  purpose. 

Hides  are  divided  roughly  in  the  tannery, 
according  to  the  size,  into  three  general 
classes :  — 

(1)  Hides,  skins  from  fully  grown  animals, 
as  cows,  oxen,  horses,  buffaloes,  walrus, 
etc.  These  are  thick,  heavy  leather,  used 
for  shoe  soles,  large  machinery  belting, 
trunks,  etc.,  where  stiffness,  strength,  and 
wearing  qualities  are  desired.  The  un- 
tanned  hides  weigh  from  twenty-five  to 
sixty  pounds. 

(2)  Kips,  skins  of  the  undersized  animals 

[5] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

of  the  above  group,  weighing  between 
fifteen  and  twenty -five  pounds. 

(3)  Skins  from  small  animals,  such  as 
calves,  sheep,  goats,  dogs,  etc.  This  last 
group  gives  a  light,  but  strong  and  pliable 
leather,  which  may  be  used  for  a  great  many 
purposes,  such  as  men's  shoes  and  the 
heavier  grades  of  women's  shoes. 

The  hides,  kips,  and  skins  are  divided  into 
various  grades,  according  to  their  weight, 
size,  condition,  and  quality. 

The  quality  of  the  hides  not  only  depends 
upon  the  kind  of  animal,  but  also  upon  its 
fodder  and  mode  of  living.  The  hides  of 
wild  cattle  yield  a  more  compact  and  stronger 
leather  than  those  of  our  domesticated 
beasts.  Among  these  latter  the  stall-fed  have 
better  hides  than  the  meadow-fed,  or  graz- 
ing cattle.  The  thickness  of  the  hide  varies 
considerably  on  different  animals  and  on  the 
parts  of  the  body,  the  thickest  part  of  the 
bull  being  near  the  head  and  the  middle  of 
the  back,  while  at  the  belly  the  hide  is  thin- 

[6] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

nest.  These  differences  are  less  conspicu- 
ous in  sheep,  goats,  and  calves.  As  regards 
sheep,  it  would  appear  that  their  skin  is 
generally  thinnest  where  their  wool  is  longest. 
In  the  raw,  untanned  state,  and  with 
the  hair  still  on,  the  hides  are  termed 
"green"  or  "fresh."  Fresh,  or  green  hides 
are  supplied  to  the  tanners  by  the  packers 
or  the  butchers,  or  are  imported,  either  dry 
or  salted. 

Hides  are  obtained  either  from  the  regu- 
lar packing  houses  or  from  farmers  who 
kill  their  own  stock,  and  do  not  skin  the 
animal  as  scientifically  as  the  regular  pack- 
ing houses,  in  which  case  they  are  called 
country  hides.  There  are  different  grades 
of  hides  and  leather,  and  these  different 
grades  are  divided  in  the  commercial  world 
into  the  five  following  grades :  — 

I.     NATIVE   HIDES 

Native  Steers 
Native  Cows,  heavy 
[7] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

Native  Cows,  light 
Branded  Cows 
Butts 

Colorado  Steers 
Texas  Steers,  heavy 
Texas  Steers,  light 
Texas  Steers,  ex-light 
Native  Bulls 
Branded  Bulls 

II.     COUNTRY   HIDES 

Ohio  Buffs 
Ohio  Ex. 
Southerns 

III.  DRY   HIDES 

(Raised  on  plain.     Rough  side  suitable  for  soles.) 

Buenos  Ay  res 

IV.  CALFSKINS 
(Green  salted) 

Chicago  City 
[8] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

V.     PARIS    CITY   CALFSKINS 

c 

Light 

Medium 

Heavy 

Hides  obtained  from  steers  raised  on 
Western  farms  are  known  as  native  steer 
hides. 

Native  cowhide  (heavy)  is  hide  weighing 
from  fifty-five  to  sixty-five  pounds,  ob- 
tained from  cows. 

Native  cowhide  (fight)  is  cowhide  weigh- 
ing under  fifty -five  pounds. 

Branded  cowhide  is  hide  obtained  from 
cows  that  are  branded  on  the  face  of  the 
hide. 

Butts  is  a  term  appHed  to  the  part  of  the 
hide  remaining  after  cutting  off  the  head, 
shoulders,  and  strip  of  the  belly. 

Colorado  steer  hide  is  from  Colorado 
steers,  which  are  very  light. 

Texas  steer  hide  comes  in  three  grades, 
heavy,  light,  and  extra  light.     The  heavy 

[9] 


HIDES  AND   THEIR  TREATMENT 

grade  is  very  heavy  because  the  animal  is 
allowed  to  graze  on  the  plains.  That  is  the 
reason  why  it  is  heavier  than  the  Colorado 
steer  hide,  which  is  raised  on  the  farm. 

Bull  hide  is  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
regular  hide  and  the  branded  grade.  The 
branded  grade  usually  is  one  cent  a  pound 
less  than  the  regular. 

Country  hides  are  of  three  grades,  Ohio 
Buffs,  Ohio  Ex.,  and  Southern.  The  Ohio 
Buffs  weigh  from  forty  to  sixty  pounds. 
The  Ohio  Ex.  weighs  from  twenty  to  forty 
pounds.  Southern  hides  have  spots  without 
hair  and  other  blemishes  on  them,  due  to 
the  sting  of  insects.  This  makes  the 
Southern  hide  inferior  to  the  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Michigan,  and  Chicago  hides  that  have  no 
such  blemishes.  Ohio  Butt  hides  are  the 
best,  because  in  Ohio  they  kill  a  great  many 
young  calves,  while  in  Chicago  young  cows 
(that  have  calved)  are  killed,  causing  the 
hide  to  be  flanky. 

The  season  of  the  year  in  which  cattle 

[10] 


HIDES  AND   THEIR  TREATMENT 

are  slaughtered  has  considerable  influence 
upon  both  the  weight  and  condition  of  the 
hide.  During  the  winter  months,  by  reason 
of  the  hair  being  longer  and  thicker,  the  hide 
is  heavier,  ranging  from  seventy-five  to 
eighty  pounds,  and  gradually  decreasing 
in  weight  as  the  season  becomes  warmer 
and  the  coat  is  shed,  until  in  June  and 
July  it  weighs  from  seventy  down  to  fifty- 
five  pounds,  the  hair  then  being  thin  and 
short.  The  best  hides  of  the  year  are 
October  hides,  and  short-haired  hides  are 
better  for  leather  purposes  than  long-haired 
ones. 

A  thick  hide  which  is  to  be  used  for 
upper  leather  is  cut  into  sides  before  the 
tanning  process  is  completed.  This  is 
performed  by  passing  it  between  rollers 
where  it  comes  in  contact  with  a  sharp 
knife-edge,  which  splits  it  into  two  or  more 
sheets.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in 
cutting  the  leather  in  order  to  have  good 
'' splits"  (sheets  of  leather).     A  split  from 

[11] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

a  heavy  hide  is  not  as  good  as  a  whole  of  a 
Hghter  leather. 

Butts  and  backs  are  selected  from  the 
stoutest  and  heaviest  oxhides.  The  butt 
is  formed  by  cutting  off  the  head,  the 
shoulder,  and  the  strip  of  the  belly.  The 
butt  or  back  of  oxhide  forms  the  stoutest 
and  heaviest  leather,  such  as  is  used  for 
soles  of  boots,  harness,  etc. 

Hides  and  skins  are  received  at  the 
tannery  in  one  of  three  conditions,  viz. 
green-salted,  dry,  or  dry-salted.  Very  few 
hides  are  received  by  tanners  in  fresh  or 
unsalted  condition,  salt  being  necessary  to 
preserve  them  from  decay.  Green-salted 
hides  are  those  that  have  been  salted  in 
fresh  condition,  tied  up  in  bundles,  and 
shipped  to  the  tanner.  Dry  hides  are  those 
that  were  taken  from  the  carcass  and  dried 
without  being  salted;  these  are  usually 
stiff  and  hard.  Dry-salted  hides  are  hides 
that  were  heavily  salted  while  they  were 
fresh,  and  then  dried.     The  hides  and  skins 

[12] 


•''J^^ 


Green-Salted  Calfskin.     Page  12. 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

that  are  received  from  the  slaughterhouses 
of  this  country  are  almost  invariably  green- 
salted  ;  those  from  foreign  countries  are 
green-salted,  dry,  and  dry-salted. 

It  does  not  matter  in  what  condition  the 
hides  are  received  or  the  kind  of  leather 
into  which  they  are  to  be  tanned ;  they  all 
require  soaldng  in  water  before  any  attempt 
is  made  to  remove  the  hair  or  to  tan  them. 
The  object  of  the  soaking  process,  as  it  is 
called,  is  to  thoroughly  soften  the  hides 
and  to  remove  from  them  all  salt,  dirt, 
blood,  etc.  Ordinary  hides  are  usually 
soaked  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours.  Dry  hides  require  much  longer. 
The  water  should  be  changed  once  or  twice 
during  the  process,  since  dirty  water  may 
injure  the  hides.  Soft  water  is  better  than 
hard  for  this  process.  Where  the  water  is 
hard,  it  is  customary  for  the  tanner  to  add 
a  quantity  of  borax  to  it  to  increase  its 
cleansing  power  and  to  hasten  the  softening 
of  the  hides. 

[13] 


fflDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

When  dry  hides  have  become  soft  enough 
to  bend  without  cracking,  they  are  put 
into  a  machine  and  beaten  and  rolled,  then 
soaked  again  until  they  are  soft  and  pliable. 
It  is  very  important  that  all  the  salt  and 
dirt  are  removed  during  the  process  of 
soaking,  as  they  injure  the  quality  of  the 
leather  if  they  are  not  removed  before 
the  hides  are  unhaired.  When  the  soaking 
process  is  completed,  the  lumps  of  fat  and 
flesh  that  may  have  been  left  on  by  the 
butcher  are  removed  by  hand  or  by  a 
machine,  and  the  hides  are  then  in  condition 
to  be  passed  along  into  the  next  process. 
The  parts  that  cannot  be  made  into  leather, 
such  as  tails,  teats,  etc.,  are  trimmed  off 
before  the  hides  are  soaked.  Large  hides 
are  cut  into  two  pieces  or  halves,  called 
"sides,"  after  they  have  been  soaked. 

For  the  purpose  of  taking  the  hair  from 
the  hides  and  skins,  lime,  sulphide  of 
sodium,  and  red  arsenic  are  used.  Lime 
is  sometimes  used  alone,  but  usually  one 

[14] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

of  the  other  two  chemicals  is  mixed  with  it. 
The  lime  is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  a  quan- 
tity of  either  sulphide  of  sodium  or  red 
arsenic  is  added  to  it,  and  the  solution  is 
then  mixed  with  water  in  a  vat,  the  hides 
being  immersed  in  this  liquor  until  the  hair 
can  be  easily  removed.  The  action  of  the 
unhairing  liquor  is  to  swell  the  hides,  then 
to  dissolve  the  perishable  animal  portion 
and  loosen  the  hair  so  that  it  can  be  rubbed 
or  pulled  off. 

There  are  several  different  processes  of 
unhairing  the  hides.  Each  tanner  uses  the 
process  that  will  help  to  give  the  leather 
the  qualities  that  it  should  have,  such  as 
softness  and  pliability  for  shoe  and  glove 
leather,  or  firmness  and  solidity  for  sole 
and  belting  leather.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  important  in  the  series  of  tannery 
processes,  and  if  the  hides  are  not  unhaired 
properly  and  not  prepared  for  tanning  as 
they  should  be,  the  leather  will  not  be  right 
when  it  is  tanned  and  finished. 

[15] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

There  is  also  a  process  of  unhairing,  called 
"sweating,"  which  softens  the  hide  and 
loosens  the  hair  so  that  it  can  be  scraped  off. 
In  this  process  the  hides  begin  to  decay  before 
the  hair  is  loose ;  it  is  therefore  a  dangerous 
process  to  use  and  must  be  carefully  watched 
or  the  hides  will  be  entirely  spoiled.  Sweat- 
ing is  never  used  for  the  finer,  softer  kinds 
of  leather.  It  is  applied  chiefly  to  dry 
hides  for  sole,  lace,  and  belt  leather.  It  is 
an  old-fashioned  process  and  is  not  used  as 
much  nowadays  as  some  years  ago. 

The  pelts  of  sheep  are  salted  at  the 
slaughterhouses  and  then  shipped  to  the 
tannery.  Here  they  are  thrown  into  water 
and  left  to  soak  twenty-four  hours  to 
loosen  the  dirt  and  dissolve  the  salt.  The 
pelts  are  next  passed  through  machines  that 
clean  the  wool,  and  any  particles  of  flesh 
remaining  on  the  inner  or  flesh  side  are 
removed.  The  pelts  are  then  in  condition 
to  have  the  wool  removed.  As  long  as  a 
sheepskin  has  the  wool  upon  it,  it  is  called 

[16] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

a  pelt ;  as  soon  as  the  wool  lias  been  taken 
off,  it  is  called  a  skin  or  a  "slat." 

Each  pelt  is  spread  out  smoothly  on  a 
table  with  the  wool  down  and  the  inner  or 
flesh  side  up.  A  mixture  of  lime  and 
sulphide  of  sodium  is  next  applied  uniformly 
over  the  skin  with  a  brush.  The  pelt  is 
then  folded  up  and  placed  in  a  pile  with 
others.  The  solution  that  was  applied 
penetrates  the  skin  and  loosens  the  wool, 
which,  at  the  end  of  twenty -four  hours, 
more  or  less,  can  be  easily  pulled  off  with 
the  hands  or  rubbed  off  with  a  dull  instru- 
ment or  stick.  The  workman  must  be 
careful  not  to  get  any  of  the  solution  on  to 
the  wool,  as  it  dissolves  it  and  makes  it 
worthless.  Since  the  wool  is  valuable,  the 
solution  must  be  applied  to  the  flesh  side 
very  carefully  so  that  it  does  no  injury. 
The  wool  that  is  removed  from  the  skins  is 
called  "pulled  wool." 

The  slat  is  now  ready  to  be  limed,  washed, 
pickled,    and    tanned.     Heavy    skins    are 

[17] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

often  split  into  two  sheets  after  they  have 
been  Hmed.  The  part  from  the  wool  side 
is  called  a  skiver,  and  that  from  the  flesh 
side  is  called  a  flesher. 

After  the  skins  have  been  limed,  they  are 
bated  and  washed,  which  makes  them  soft, 
clean,  and  white ;  they  are  then  put  into  a 
solution  of  salt,  sulphuric  acid,  and  water, 
called  "pickle,"  and  after  a  few  hours  they 
are  taken  out,  drained,  and  tanned. 

Large  quantities  of  sheepskins  are  sold 
to  tanners  in  the  pickled  condition  by  those 
who  make  a  business  of  preparing  such 
skins  and  selling  the  wool.  Pickled  skins 
can  be  kept  an  indefinite  length  of  time 
without  spoiling;  they  can  also  be  dried 
and  worked  out  into  a  cheap  white  leather 
without  any  further  tanning  whatever. 
Most  of  such  skins,  however,  are  sold  to 
tanners,  who  tan  them  into  leather.  Sheep- 
skins contain  considerable  grease,  which 
must  be  removed  before  the  leather  can  be 
sold. 

[18] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

For  some  processes  of  tanning,  calfskins, 
goatskins,  and  cattle  hides  are  also  pickled 
the  same  as  sheepskins ;  for  other  processes 
they  are  not  pickled,  but  are  thoroughly 
bated  or  delimed,  washed,  and  cleansed. 
Heavy  hides  are  sometimes  split  out  of  the 
lime;  more  frequently,  however,  they  are 
not  split  until  after  they  have  been  tanned. 

To  capitulate,  the  preparatory  processes 
may  be  briefly  described  as  follows  :  — 

Soaking,  which  dissolves  the  salt,  removes 
the  dirt  and  makes  the  hides  soft  and 
comparatively  clean. 

Liming  and  unhairing,  which  swell  the 
hides  and  dissolve  the  perishable  animal 
portion,  loosen  the  hair,  and  put  the  hides 
into  proper  condition  for  tanning.  Hides 
tanned  without  liming,  even  if  the  hair  is 
removed  by  some  chemical,  do  not  make 
pliable  leather,  but  are  stiff  and  hard. 

Bating,  which  removes  the  lime  from  the 
hides. 

Pickling,  which  helps  in  the  tanning  later, 

[19] 


HIDES  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT 

and  keeps  the  hides  and  skins  from  spoiHng 
if  they  are  not  tanned  at  once. 

The  lumps  of  fat  and  flesh  that  may  be  on 
the  hides  are  removed  by  machinery  or  by 
placing  the  hide  over  a  beam  and  scraping  it 
with  a  knife.  The  hair,  when  it  is  loosened 
by  the  lime,  is  removed  by  a  machine  or  by 
hand. 


[20] 


CHAPTER  THREE 

PROCESSES    OF    TANNING 

THE  various  processes  of  tanning  may 
be  roughly  divided  into  two  classes, 
vegetable  chemical  and  mineral  chemical. 
The  first  class  is  often  spoken  of  in  tanneries 
simply  as  the  "  vegetable  "  while  the  second 
is  called  "  chemical  "  process.  In  the  vege- 
table processes  the  tanning  is  accomplished 
by  tannin,  which  is  found  in  various  barks 
and  woods  of  trees  and  leaves  of  plants.  In 
the  so-called  chemical  processes  the  tanning 
is  done  with  mineral  salts  and  acids  which 
produce  an  entirely  different  kind  of  leather 
from  that  procured  by  vegetable  tanning. 

There  is  also  a  method  of  tanning,  or, 
more  properly  speaking,  tawing,  in  which 
alum  and  salt  are  used.  This  process 
makes  white  leather  that  is  used  for  many 

[21] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

purposes;  it  is  also  colored  and  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  fine  gloves.  Leather 
is  also  made  by  tanning  skins  with  oil. 
Chamois  skins  are  made  in  this  way. 

The  materials  that  are  used  to  tan  hides 
and  skins  act  upon  the  hide  fibers  in  such 
a  way  that  the  hides  are  rendered  proof 
against  decay  and  become  pliable  and  strong. 
There  are  many  vegetable  tans ;  they  are 
used  for  sole  leather,  upper  leather,  and 
colored  leather  for  numerous  purposes. 
The  bark  of  hemlock  trees  is  one  of  the 
principal  tans.  The  woods  and  barks 
of  oak,  chestnut,  and  quebracho  trees 
are  often  used.  Palmetto  roots  yield  a 
good  tan.  Large  quantities  of  leather  are 
treated  with  gambier  and  various  other 
tanning  materials  that  come  from  foreign 
countries.  Sumac  leaves,  which  are  im- 
ported from  Sicily,  contain  tannin  that 
makes  soft  leather  suitable  for  hat  sweat- 
bands,  suspender  trimmings,  etc.  Sumac 
is  also  obtained  from  the  State  of  Virginia, 

[22] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

but  the  foreign  leaves  contain  more  tan- 
nin and  make  better  leather  than  the 
American. 

To  a  large  extent  the  so-called  chemical 
processes  have  supplanted  the  vegetable 
processes,  that  is,  old  tan  bark  and  sumac 
processes;  but  in  some  tanneries  both 
methods  are  used  on  different  kinds  of 
skins. 

In  the  old  bark  process  the  tan  bark  is 
ground  coarse  and  is  then  treated  in  leaches 
with  hot  water  until  the  tanning  quality  is 
drawn  out.  The  liquor  so  obtained  is  used 
at  various  strengths  as  needed. 

In  the  newer  method  the  tan  liquor  is 
displaced  by  a  solution  of  potassium  bichro- 
mate, which  produces  its  results  with  much 
less  expenditure  of  time. 

When  the  hides  or  skins  are  ready  for 
the  tanning  process,  they  are  put  into  a 
revolving  drum,  known  as  a  "pinwheel," 
or  into  a  pit  in  which  are  revolving  paddles, 
with  a  dilute  solution  of  potassium  dichro- 

[23] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

mate  or  sodium  dichromate,  acidified  with 
hydrochloric  or  suphuric  acid.  If  the  pin- 
wheel  is  employed,  it  is  revolved  for  seven 
hours  or  longer;  after  which  time  the 
liquor  is  drawn  off  and  replaced  by  an 
acidified  solution  of  sodium  thiosulphate  or 
bisulphite,  and  then  the  revolution  is  con- 
tinued several  hours  longer.  If  the  pit  is 
used,  the  skins  are  removed  to  another 
drum  containing  the  second  solution,  and 
kept  at  rest  or  overturned  for  a  like  period. 

In  removing  the  skins  from  the  pinwheel 
or  vat,  and  in  handling  them  after  treatment 
with  lime  for  the  loosening  of  the  hair,  the 
hands  and  arms  of  the  workmen  are  seriously 
injured,  becoming  raw  if  not  protected  by 
rubber  gloves ;  even  with  gloves  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  prevent  injury,  and  in  some  es- 
tablishments the  workmen  are  relieved  by 
the  substitution  of  a  single-bath  process, 
in  which  the  liquor  is  less  harmful  to  the 
skin. 

The   hides   are   then   removed   from  the 

[24] 


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PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

pits,  washed  and  brushed,  followed  by  slow 
drying  in  the  air.  When  partly  dried,  they 
are  placed  in  a  pile  and  covered  until  heat- 
ing is  induced.  They  are  then  dampened 
and  rolled  with  brass  rollers  to  give  the 
leather  solidity.  Sole  leather  is  oiled  but 
little.  Weight  is  increased  by  adding  glu- 
cose and  salt. 

Various  rapid  processes  of  tanning  have 
been  devised  in  which  the  hides  are  sus- 
pended in  strong  liquors  or  are  tanned  in 
large  revolving  drums.  It  is  claimed  that 
this  hastens  the  process,  but  the  product 
has  been  criticized  as  lacking  substance  or 
being  brittle. 

Chrome  tannage  has  been  chiefly  devel- 
oped in  this  country  during  the  last  twenty 
years  and  is  now  in  general  use.  It  consists 
in  throwing  an  insoluble  chromium  hydrox- 
ide or  oxide  on  the  fibers  of  a  skin  which 
has  been  impregnated  with  a  soluble  chro- 
mium salt  —  potassium  bichromate.  Other 
salts  like  basic  chromium  chloride,  chromium 

[25] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

chromate,  and  chromic  alum  are  also  used. 
The  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acid  acts 
by  setting  free  chromic  acid. 

After  several  hours,  the  skin  shows  a 
uniform  yellow  when  cut  through  its  thick- 
est part.  It  is  then  drained  and  the  skin 
worked  in  a  solution  of  sodium  bisulphite 
and  mineral  acid  (to  free  sulphur  dioxide). 
The  chromic  acid  is  absorbed  by  the  fiber 
and  later  reduced  by  sulphur  dioxide. 

In  the  making  of  chrome  black  leather 
each  tanner  has  his  own  method.  Contrary 
to  the  general  belief,  there  are  many  different 
methods  of  chrome  tannage.  No  two  tan- 
neries employ  just  the  same  process. 

Tanners  of  chrome  leather  seek  to  pro- 
duce leather  suitable  for  the  particular 
demands  made  upon  it  by  the  peculiarities 
or  characteristics  of  the  varying  seasons. 
Summer  shoes  require  a  cool,  light  leather; 
at  other  times  a  heavier  tannage  is  essential, 
with  some  call  for  a  practically  waterproof 
product. 

[26] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

All  leathers,  whether  vegetable-  or  chrome- 
tanned,  must  be  "fat  liquored."  That  is 
to  say,  a  certain  amount  of  fatty  material 
must  be  put  into  the  skin  in  order  that  it 
may  be  mellow,  workable,  and  serviceable. 
This  is  very  essential  in  producing  calf 
leather.  Fat  liquors  usually  contain  oil 
and  soap,  which  have  been  boiled  in  water 
and  made  into  a  thin  liquor.  The  leather 
is  put  into  a  drum  with  the  hot  fat  liquor; 
the  drum  is  set  in  motion,  and  as  it  revolves 
the  leather  tumbles  about  in  the  drum  and 
absorbs  the  oil  and  soap  from  the  water. 
It  is  the  fat  liquor  that  makes  the  leather 
soft  and  strong. 

Leather  used  in  shoes  is  divided  into  two 
classes:  sole  leather  and  upper  leather. 

Sole  leather  is  a  heavy,  solid,  stiff  leather 
and  may  be  bent  without  cracking.  It  is 
the  foundation  of  the  shoe,  and  therefore 
should  be  of  the  best  material.  The  hides 
of  bulls  and  oxen  yield  the  best  leather  for 
this  purpose. 

[27] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

The  hide  that  is  tanned  for  sole  leather  is 
soaked  for  several  days  in  a  weak  solution 
(which  is  gradually  made  stronger)  of  oak  or 
hemlock  tan  made  from  the  bark.  Oak- 
tanned  hide  is  preferred  and  may  be  known 
by  its  light  color.  A  chemical  change  takes 
place  in  the  fiber  of  the  hide.  This  is  a 
high-grade  tannage,  and  is  distinguished 
principally  by  its  fine  fibers  and  close, 
compact    texture. 

Oak  sole  leather,  by  reason  of  its  tough 
character,  and  its  close,  fibrous  texture, 
resists  water  and  will  wear  well  down 
before  cracking.  It  is  by  many  considered 
better  than  other  leather  for  flexible-sole 
shoes,  requiring  waterproof  qualities. 

Sole  leather  is  divided  into  three  classes 
according  to  the  tanning  —  oak,  hemlock, 
and  union. 

Oak  tanning  is  as  follows :  the  hides  are 
hung  in  pits  containing  weak  or  nearly 
spent  liquors  from  a  previous  tanning,  and 
agitated  so  as  to  take  up  tannin  evenly. 

[28] 


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PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

Strong  liquor  would  harden  the  surface 
so  as  to  prevent  thorough  penetration  into 
the  interior  of  the  hides.  After  ten  or 
twelve  days,  the  hides  are  taken  out  and 
laid  away  in  fresh  tan  and  stronger  liquor. 
This  process  is  repeated  as  often  as  necessary 
for  eight  to  ten  months.  At  the  end  of  this 
time  the  hide  has  absorbed  all  of  the  tannin 
which  it  will  take  up. 

Hemlock  tanning  is  similar  to  the  oak 
tanning  in  process.  The  hemlock  tan  is  a 
red  shade.  Hemlock  produces  a  very  hard 
and  inflexible  leather.  It  is  modified  by 
use  of  bleaching  materials  which  are  applied 
to  the  leather  after  being  tanned.  It  is  sold 
in  sides  without  being  trimmed,  while  the 
oak  is  sold  in  backs,  with  belly  and  head 
trimmed  off. 

Hemlock  leather  is  used  extensively  and 
almost  principally  for  men's  and  boys' 
stiff-soled,  heavy  shoes,  where  no  flexibility 
is  required  or  expected.  Its  principal  desir- 
able quality  is  its  resistance  to  trituration, 

[29] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

or  being  ground  to  a  powder,  and  its  use  in 
men's  and  boys'  pegged,  nailed,  or  standard 
screw  shoes  is  not  in  any  way  objectionable 
to  the  wearer.  In  fact,  for  this  class  of 
shoes,  it  is  probably  the  best  leather  that 
can  be  used.  But  when  hemlock  is  used 
in  men's  and  boys'  Goodyear  welt  shoes, 
where  a  flexible  bottom  is  expected  and 
required,  it  generally  does  not  give  good 
results.  It  cannot  satisfactorily  resist  the 
constant  flexing  to  which  it  is  subjected, 
and  after  the  sole  is  worn  half  through,  the 
constant  bending  causes  it  to  crack  cross- 
wise. On  this  account  it  becomes  like  a 
sieve,  and  has  no  power  of  resistance  in 
water,  and  therefore  it  is  not  at  all  suited 
to  flexible-bottomed  shoes. 

In  "union-tanned"  hides,  both  oak  and 
hemlock  are  used  and  the  result  is  a  com- 
promise in  both  color  and  quality.  This 
tan  was  first  used  about  fifty  years  ago. 
Twenty-five  years  ago  the  union  leather 
tanners  began  to  experiment  with  bleaching 

[30] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

materials  to  avoid  the  use  of  oak  bark, 
which  was  becoming  scarce  and  high  priced, 
and  eventually  developed  a  system  of  tan- 
ning union  leather  with  hemlock  or  kindred 
tanning  agents,  excluding  oak.  The  red 
color  and  the  hard  texture  were  modified 
by  bleaching  the  leather  to  the  desired 
color  and  texture.  This  produces  leather 
which  has  not  the  fine,  close  tannage  of 
genuine  oak  leather  and  at  the  same  time 
lacks  the  compact,  hard  character  of  hem- 
lock leather.  Union  leather  produced  in 
this  manner  is  a  sort  of  mongrel  or  hybrid 
leather,  being  neither  oak  nor  hemlock. 
On  account  of  its  economy  in  cutting 
qualities,  however,  it  is  largely  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  medium-priced  shoes  where 
a  certain  degree  of  flexibility  is  required  in 
the  sole.  This  is  particularly  true  of  wom- 
en's shoes. 

Union  leather  is  sold  largely  in  backs  and 
trimmed  the  same  as  oak,  though  not  so 
closely. 

[31] 


PROCESSES   OF  TANNING 

Sole-  leather  is  also  made  nowadays  by 
tanning  the  hides  by  the  chrome  or  chemi- 
cal process.  This  leather  is  very  durable 
and  pliable  and  is  used  on  athletic  and  sport- 
ing shoes.  It  has  a  light  green  color  and 
is  much  lighter  in  weight  than  the  oak  or 
hemlock  leather. 

Many  kinds  of  hide  are  used  for  sole 
leather.  This  country  does  not  produce 
nearly  enough  hides  for  the  demand,  and 
great  quantities  are  imported  from  abroad, 
although  most  of  the  imported  hides  come 
from  South  America.  Imported  hides  are 
divided  into  two  general  classes,  dry  hides 
and  green-salted  hides. 

Dry  hides  are  of  two  kinds,  the  dry 
"flint,"  which  are  dried  carefully  after 
being  taken  from  the  animal  and  cured 
without  salt.  These  generally  make  good 
leather,  although  if  sunburnt,  the  leather  is 
not  strong.  "Dry-salted  hides"  are  salted 
and  cured  to  a  dry  state.  Dry  hides  of 
both  kinds  are  used   for  hemlock   leather 

[32] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

only,  although  all  hemlock  leather  is  not 
made  from  dry  hides. 

Green-salted  hides  are  used  in  making 
oak-tanned  leather  as  well  as  hemlock,  and 
those  used  by  United  States  tanners  come 
largely  from  domestic  points  ;  but  there  is  a 
variable  amount  imported  each  year  from 
abroad,  principally  from  Europe  and  South 
America.  Green-salted  hides  are  of  two 
general  classes,  those  branded  and  those 
free  of  brands. 

Cow  and  steer  hides  of  the  branded  type 
are  used  by  tanners  of  oak  and  union  leather. 
Those  not  branded  are  used  more  largely  for 
belting  and  upholstering  leathers,  a  small 
part  finding  their  way  into  hemlock  leather. 

Sole  leather  remnants,  strictly  speaking, 
include  such  a  wide  variety  of  items  that 
it  is  diflScult  to  cover  them  all.  Few  people, 
however,  realize  the  big  range  of  usefulness 
of  this  class  of  stock.  While  not  exactly  a 
by-product,  remnants  are  often  classed  as 
such.      Under    the    class    of    sole    leather 

[33] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

remnants  are  included  sole  leather  offal, 
such  as  heads,  bellies,  shoulders,  shanks, 
shins,  men's  heeling,  men's  half  heeling, 
men's  and  women's  three-  and  four-piece 
heeling,  etc.  Stock  that  cannot  be  used 
in  the  shoe  business  goes  into  the  chemical 
and  fertilizer  trade,  among  other  outlets. 
By  a  special  acid  process  of  burning  this 
stock,  ammonia  is  derived  from  it,  which 
goes  into  fertilizer ;  and  another  by-product 
is  sulphuric  acid  for  the  chemical  trade. 
The  amount  of  ammonia  obtained  is  small, 
being  about  seven  per  cent  of  ammonia  to 
a  ton  of  sole  leather  scrap.  This  is  mixed 
with  fertilizer  and  sold  mostly  in  the  South- 
ern States,  and  to  a  small  extent  in  the  West, 
there  being  a  law  in  many  of  the  Western 
States  against  the  use  of  fertilizer  made 
from  leather  products,  on  account  of  its 
low  grade. 

In  the  disposition  of  offal,  heads  are  used 
for  taps,  top  lifts,  and  under  lifts.  Shoulders 
are  used  for  outsoles  and  inner  soles,  while 

[34] 


Sole  Leather  Offal 

Showing  bellies,  shoulders,  etc.    Page  36. 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

bellies  are  used  for  medium  to  heavy  taps 
and  counters.  Lightweight  bellies  and 
shanks  are  utilized  for  making  box  toes 
and  counters. 

Shanks  are  also  used  for  taps  and  under 
lifts.  This  stock  is  solid  and  substantial 
and  well  suited  for  these  purposes.  The 
bellies,  being  flexible,  are  the  best  part  of 
the  hide  obtainable  for  inner  soles. 

In  cutting  out  soles,  the  manufacturer 
accumulates  a  considerable  quantity  of 
solid  or  center  pieces,  which  are  used  for 
small  top  lifts,  also  for  "Cuban"  tops, 
thereby  using  up  the  bulk  of  the  small 
heavy  scrap  that  ordinarily  would  be  sold 
for  pieced  heeling.  There  is  also  a  demand 
for  similar  stock  from  the  hardware  trade, 
where  it  is  used  for  making  mallet  and  tool 
handles,  also  for  wagon  and  carriage 
washers.  Large  quantities  of  men's  and 
women's  heeling  and  half  heeling  go  to 
England,  where  it  is  cut  up  by  heel  manu- 
facturers into  lifts    and   sectional   lifts   for 

[35] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

the  English  trade;  there  being  a  shortage 
of  this  class  of  offal  there. 

The  shoe  manufacturer,  after  cutting  his 
soles  and  taps,  is  obliged  to  skive  them  to 
get  the  particular  iron  he  needs.  This 
leaves  what  is  known  as  a  "flesh  sole 
shape,"  also  a  "tap  shape."  These  skivings 
are  pasted  together  by  another  class  of 
trade  and  again  used  for  inner  soling  and 
taps  in  the  cheaper  grades  of  shoes.  Smaller 
skivings,  or  waste,  after  sorting  out  the  sole 
and  tap  shapes,  are  sold  to  the  leather 
board  trade.  This  eventually  comes  back 
to  the  shoe  trade  in  the  shape  of  leather 
board  and  is  cut  into  heel  lifts.  The  waste 
after  cutting  heel  lifts  is  again  resold  to 
the  leather  board  trade  and  makes  another 
round  trip  to  the  shoe  manufacturer.  This 
illustration,  as  well  as  many  others  in  the 
leather  remnant  business,  demonstrates  the 
scientific  principle  that  nothing  is  ever 
entirely  lost.  In  regard  to  pieced  heel  lifts, 
these  are  made  in  either  two,  three,  or  four 

[36] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

sections.  This  refers  to  what  are  known  as 
sectional  heel  lifts.  Scrap  leather  is  also 
used  for  shanking  for  the  European  trade. 

Soles  and  taps,  known  as  rejects,  that  is, 
those  thrown  out  by  the  high-grade  trade, 
are  sold  to  manufacturers  of  cheaper  lines. 
A  shoe  manufacturer  cutting  his  own  soles 
and  buying  sole  leather  in  sides,  after  sorting 
out  the  soles  suited  to  his  own  requirements, 
will  sell  what  he  cannot  use  to  remnant 
dealers,  who  in  turn  re-sell  them  to  shoe 
manufacturers  requiring  that  particular 
class  of  stock.  The  scrap  leather,  or  rem- 
nant dealer,  thus  forms  a  useful  link  in  the 
chain  of  distribution,  furnishing  a  market 
where  shoe  and  leather  manufacturers  may 
dispose  of  their  surplus  products  to  best 
advantage,  and  providing  a  source  of  supply 
for  buyers  who  wish  any  particular  article 
to  suit  their  individual  needs. 

Upper  or  dressed  leather  is  made  from 
kips  or  large  calfskins.  It  is  tanned  and 
finished  like  all  other  forms  of  leather  by 

[37] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

variations  of  the  foregoing  process.  Thick 
hides  are  often  spHt  thin  by  machinery, 
and  the  parts  retained  and  finished  sepa- 
rately. The  parts  of  the  leather  from  the 
hair  side  are  most  valuable  and  are  called 
"grain"  leather;  the  inner  parts  or  "flesh 
splits"  are  made  into  a  variety  of  different 
kinds  of  leather  by  waxing,  oiling,  and 
polishing. 

It  is  finished  by  scouring  with  brushes  and 
then  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  glass,  which 
removes  creases  and  wrinkles  and  stretches 
the  leather.  Then  it  is  stuffed  with  a 
mixture  of  oil,  soap,  and  tallow,  which  is 
worked  into  it  by  rolling.  Various  finishes 
are  given  to  leather,  such  as  seal  grain, 
buff,  glove  grain,  oil  grain,  satin  calf, 
russet,  plain  shoe,  etc. 

Upper  leathers  are  blacked  by  rubbing  with 
a  mixture  of  lampblack  and  oil  or  tallow,  or 
with  a  solution  of  copperas  and  logwood. 

No  tanning  process,  no  matter  how  good 
or   thorough,   can   make  firm,   serviceable, 

[38] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

wear-resisting  leather  out  of  all  portions 
of  any  hide,  because  nature  made  some 
parts  of  every  hide  porous,  spongy,  and 
lacking  in  fibrous  strength. 

Calfskins  used  by  tanners  are  of  several 
classes.  American  calfskins,  taken  off  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  are  usually 
sold  green  pelted.  Farmers  raise  only  a 
small  fraction  of  the  calves  born.  Each 
cow  must  produce  a  calf  in  order  to  insure  a 
maximum  flow  of  milk.  Most  of  the  farm- 
ers keep  cows  to  produce  milk,  hence  they 
sell  the  young  calves  for  veal  and  use  their 
skins  for  high-grade  calf  leather. 

In  European  countries  farmers  fatten 
their  calves  before  selling  them  in  order  to 
get  a  higher  price  for  the  veal.  The  skin 
is  not  so  valuable  for  leather  as  the  skin 
from  younger  calves,  and  it  is  used  for 
lower- value  leathers. 

Calfskin  is  not  split.  A  heavier  weight 
skin  might  be.  It  is  shaved  to  a  uniform 
thickness. 

[39] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

Calf  leather  is  divided  into  the  following 
classes,  depending  upon  the  finish  of  the 
leather :  — 

Boarded  calf  (made  in  both  chrome  and 
bark  tannage). 

Wax  calf,  finished  on  the  flesh  side  with  a 
waxy,  hard  surface. 

Box  calf  is  a  proprietary  name.  It  is 
boarded  —  rubbed  with  a  board  to  raise  the 
grain.  It  is  known  by  minute,  squarelike 
lines. 

Mat  calf  is  a  dull-finished  calfskin,  used 
more  in  topping. 

Suede  calf  is  finished  on  flesh  side.  Most 
makes  of  suede  calf  are  chromed,  although 
there  are  some  vegetable. 

Storm  calf  is  a  heavy  skin,  finished  for 
winter  wear.  Considerable  oil  is  used  in 
finishing. 

French  calf  is  finished  on  flesh  side. 

Dry  hides  are  obtained  from  Buenos 
Ay  res,  where  the  cattle  are  raised  on  the 
plains.     This  city  exports  a  large  quantity  of 

[40] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

hides,  dry,  salted,  and  cured  b}^  smoking. 
The  hides  of  cows  generally  yield  inferior 
grain  leather;  but  South  American  cow- 
hides  may  be  worked  for  light  sole  leather. 

Calves'  hides  are  thinner,  but  when  well 
tanned,  curried,  and  dressed,  they  yield  a 
very  soft  and  supple  leather  for  boots  and 
shoes.  They  are  finished  with  wax  and 
oil  on  the  flesh  side,  and  can  also  be  finished 
on  the  hair  (grain  of  skin). 

Calves'  skin  (green  salted). 

Paris  City  calfskins.  These  are  obtained 
in  three  grades — light,  medium,  and  heavy. 

Light  grades  run  from  four  to  five, 
or  seven  to  eight  pounds ;  medium  grades 
run  from  seven  to  nine  pounds;  heavy 
grades   run  from  nine  to  twelve  pounds. 

Patent  leather  may  be  made  from  colt, 
calf,  or  kid  skin.  Coltskin  is  the  skin  of 
young  horses,  or  split  skins  of  mature 
horses. 

Patent  colt  and  kid  are  used  for  the  most 
part  in  the  medium  fine  grades,  and  patent 

[41] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

side  (cowhide)  is  used  in  the  medium  and 
cheaper  grades.  Chrome  tanned  are  used  en- 
tirely in  the  manufacture  of  patent  leather. 

Patent  leather,  as  it  appears  in  shoes, 
may  be  described  either  as  varnished  leather, 
coltskin,  or  kid,  and  sometimes  the  French 
use  calfskin.  The  process  is  largely  a 
secret  one,  although  there  is  no  longer  any 
patent  on  the  principle  of  the  same.  It  is 
made  by  shaving  the  skins  on  the  flesh  side 
or  hair  side  to  a  uniform  thickness.  Then 
it  is  de-greased  to  put  the  skin  in  condition 
to  receive  the  finish  and  protect  the  same 
from  peeling  off.  Successive  coats  of  liquid 
black  varnish  are  applied,  the  first  coats 
being  dried  and  rubbed  down,  so  as  to  work 
the  liquid  thoroughly  into  the  fibers  of  the 
leather.  The  last  coat  is  applied  with  a  brush, 
and  baked  to  from  one  hundred  and  twenty 
to  one  hundred  and  forty  degrees  Fahrenheit 
for  thirty-six  hours  and  then  allowed  to  dry 
in  direct  sunlight  for  from  six  to  ten  hours, 
which    seems    to    be    essential    to    remove 

[42] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

the  sticky  feeling.  Various  ingredients  are 
used  in  making  the  different  varnishes,  the 
first  coating  consisting  of  naphtha,  wood 
alcohol,  amyl  acetate,  etc.  The  black 
varnishes  consist  of  linseed  oil  and  various 
other  mixtures,  heated  in  iron  kettles.  The 
final  coating  is  a  naphtha  preparation  re- 
sembling japanning  material.  The  hide  is 
stretched  on  a  frame  during  the  varnishing 
operations. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  tell  the  difference 
in  quality  of  shiny  leather  by  appearance, 
although  in  general  the  leather  on  which 
the  grain  shows  through  the  varnish  will 
prove  more  serviceable  than  that  on  which 
the  finish  is  so  thick  as  to  hide  the  grain. 
Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  resewing 
patent  leather  shoes  that  have  been  exposed 
during  the  cold  weather,  as  the  cold  has 
a  tendency  to  freeze  the  finish.  Patent 
leather,  like  all  varnished  coatings,  is  liable 
to  crack.  No  one  can  guarantee  it  not  to  do 
so.     The  kid  patent  leather  is  more  elastic 

[43] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

and  porous  than  other  kinds.  The  serious 
objection  to  the  use  of  patent  leather  for  a 
shoe  is  its  air-tightness.  This  makes  it  both 
unhygienic  and  uncomfortable.  The  kid 
patent  leather  is  the  only  patent  leather 
that  has  not  this  objection. 

Kid  is  a  term  applied  to  shoe  leather 
made  from  the  skins  of  mature  goats.  The 
skin  of  the  young  goat  or  kid  is  made  into 
the  thin,  flexible  leather  used  for  kid  gloves, 
which  is  too  delicate  for  general  use  in 
shoes.  The  goats  from  which  come  the 
supply  of  leather  used  in  this  country  for 
women's  and  children's  fine  shoes  are  not 
the  common,  domesticated  kind  known  in 
this  country,  but  are  wild  goats  or  allied 
species  partially  domesticated,  and  are 
found  in  the  hill  regions  of  India,  the  moun- 
tains of  Europe,  portions  of  South  America, 
etc. 

There  are  about  sixty-eight  recognized 
kinds  of  goatskins  that  are  imported  from 
all  over  the  world.     The  Brazilian,  Buenos 

[44] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

Ayres,  Andean,  Mexican,  French,  Russian, 
Indian,  and  Chinese  are  a  few  of  the  many 
kinds  that  are  known  as  such.  Each 
particular  species  of  goat  hide  possesses 
its  own  pecuKarities  of  texture.  The  thick- 
ness and  grain  differ  according  to  the  envi- 
ronment in  which  the  animal  has  been 
raised.  It  is  peculiar  that  those  raised  in 
cold  climates  do  not  have  as  thick  skins  as 
those  raised  in  warmer  climates,  for  the  long, 
thick  hair  apparently  takes  the  strength. 

We  may  wonder  where  all  the  skins  come 
from  that  are  made  up  into  glazed  kid, 
mat  kid,  and  suede,  at  the  rate  of  several 
thousand  dozen  every  day.  The  great  pro- 
portion of  the  skins  are  goatskins.  These 
are  almost  all  imported  from  abroad,  where 
the  animals  are  slaughtered  and  disposed  of 
much  the  same  as  we  dispose  of  beef  and 
veal  here.  Sheepskins  and  carbarettas,  the 
hides  of  animals  that  are  a  cross  between 
sheep  and  goats,  are  also  used. 

The  finer  grades   of  kid   and    goatskins 

[45] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

which  are  tanned  in  large  quantities  in 
New  England,  come  from  the  Far  East. 

In  China  there  are  two  great  ports  from 
which  skins  are  shipped,  Tientsin  and 
Shanghai.  Back  in  the  interior,  starting 
from  a  point  about  twelve  hundred  miles 
from  the  sea,  collectors  make  their  rounds 
twice  a  year. 

The  breeder  of  goats  kills  his  flock  just 
before  the  collector  is  due,  skins  the  animals 
on  the  hillside,  preserves  the  meat  for  food, 
and  with  the  kidskins,  which  have  been 
partly  dried,  wrapped  in  a  bundle  carried 
upon  the  back,  or  upon  a  pack  animal,  the 
breeder  makes  his  way  to  the  station.  It 
may  be  that  there  are  a  half  hundred 
breeders  awaiting  the  coming  of  the  collector 
and  he  pays  them  the  market  price  for  the 
skins. 

Whenever  the  collector  has  a  sufficient  sup- 
ply to  make  it  profitable  to  ship,  he  bales  the 
skins  and  then  sends  them  over  the  thousand 
mile  journey  along  the  river  to  the  seaport. 

[46] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

From  Tientsin  or  Shanghai  they  are 
taken  by  tramp  steamers,  which  reach 
Eastern  ports  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
and  on  the  trip  the  steamers  make  several 
ports,  so  that  it  is  from  six  to  ten  weeks 
before  the  skins  reach  America. 

Another  method  of  importing  is  to  have 
the  raw  material  shipped  across  the  Pacific 
and  then  transferred  to  a  railroad,  but  the 
difference  in  cost  to  the  manufacturer  is  so 
great  that  it  is  unprofitable. 

The  China  goatskins  are  rated  as  among 
the  finest  in  the  world  and  when  tanned 
they  make  the  highest-grade  shoe. 

Then  there  are  mocha  skins,  which  come 
from  Tripoli,  Arabia,  and  Northern  Africa. 
In  those  places  the  method  of  collection  is 
practically  the  same  as  in  China. 

The  two  best-known  grades  are  the 
Hodieda  and  the  Benghazi.  They  derive 
their  designations  from  the  exporting  cities. 
Hodieda    is    located    in   the   southwestern 

part    of    Arabia    on    the    Red     Sea,  while 

[47] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

Benghazi  is  in  Barca,  one  of  the  provinces 
of  Tripoli. 

Other  goatskins  are  produced  in  India 
and  Russia,  and  milhons  of  skins  are  ex- 
ported annually  from  Bombay,  Madras,  and 
Calcutta.  These  skins  are  not  brought 
direct  to  America,  but  are  transshipped  at 
Marseilles  or  London. 

The  jobbers  in  Europe  or  India  occupy 
rather  a  unique  position,  for  according  to 
their  practice  it  is  almost  impossible  for 
them  to  suffer  financial  losses  in  dealing 
with  an  American  tanner.  The  latter,  when 
he  wishes  to  arrange  for  his  year's  supply  of 
raw  material,  negotiates  with  an  agent  in 
Boston,  with  whom  he  signs  a  contract 
for  so  many  skins.  Then  it  is  necessary  for 
the  tanner  to  either  purchase  with  money 
equal  to  the  face  value  or  secure  by  loans 
letters  of  credit  from  Boston  banking 
houses  which  have  European  connections. 

Before  the  skins  are  exported,  the  jobber 

has  his  money  from  the  European  banking 

[48] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

concerns  and  the  bills  of  lading  are  forwarded 
to  the  Boston  bankers,  who  turn  them  over 
to  the  tanners,  and,  when  the  occasion 
requires,  obtain  from  the  tanners  what  is 
known  as  a  deed  of  trust. 

All  goatskins  are  tanned  by  the  same 
chrome  tanning  process,  whether  the  finish 
is  to  be  glazed  or  mat.  The  proportions  of 
chemicals  vary  according  to  the  texture  of 
the  skin,  and  according  to  the  grain. 

The  process  of  tanning  is  quicker  than 
the  tanning  of  heavier  hides,  and  all  va- 
rieties of  tannage  are  used,  the  chrome 
methods  having  come  into  very  general  use. 
There  are  many  kinds  of  finish  given,  such 
as  glazed,  dull,  mat,  patent,  etc.  One 
quality  that  distinguishes  goat  leather,  the 
"kid"  of  shoemaking,  is  the  fact  that  the 
fibers  of  the  skin  are  interlaced  and  inter- 
locked in  all  directions.  The  finished  skins 
as  they  come  from  the  tannery,  by  whatever 
process  they  may  be  put  through,  are  sorted 
for  size  and  quality,  a    number  of  grades 

[49] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

being  made.  Instead  of  ripping  straight 
through,  Hke  a  piece  of  cloth,  or  sphting 
apart  in  layers,  as  sheepskin  will  do  when 
made  into  leather,  the  kid  holds  together 
firmly  in  all  directions. 

Glazed  kid  is  colored  after  it  is  tanned  by 
submerging  it  in  the  color,  a  very  important 
process.  The  glossy  surface  is  obtained  by 
"striking"  or  burnishing  on  the  grain  side. 
It  is  made  in  black  and  colors,  particularly 
tan,  and  is  known  by  about  as  many  names 
as  there  are  manufacturers  of  it. 

Glazed  kid  is  used  in  the  uppers  of  shoes, 
making  a  fine,  soft  shoe  that  is  particularly 
comfortable  in  warm  weather,  and  is  said 
to  prevent  cold  feet  in  winter,  owing  to 
unrestricted  circulation. 

Mat  kid  is  a  soft,  dull  black  kid,  the 
softness  being  the  result  of  treatment  with 
beeswax  or  olive  oil.  It  is  finished  on  the 
grain  side  the  same  as  glazed  kid,  and  is 
used  principally  for  shoe  toppings.  It  is 
very  similar  in  appearance  to  mat  calf  and 

[50] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

is  often  used  in  preference  to  it,  as  it  is  of 
much  lighter  weight,  and  about  as  strong. 

Suede  kid  is  not  tanned,  but  is  subjected 
to  a  feeding  process  in  an  egg  sohition, 
called  "tawing,"  to  make  it  soft  and  pliable. 
The  skin  is  stretched  and  the  color  is  applied 
by  "brushing"  (with  a  brush).  The  color 
does  not  permeate  the  skin,  but  is  merely 
on  the  surface.  Suedes  are  made  from 
carbarettas  and  split  sheepskins.  Suedes 
are  used  very  extensively  in  making  slippers, 
and  come  in  a  great  variety  of  colors. 

A  castor  kid  is  a  Persian  lambskin  fin- 
ished the  same  as  a  suede,  and  is  used  in 
making  very  soft,  fine-appearing  leather  — 
like  glove  leather.  .  The  skin  is  of  such  a 
very  light  weight  that  it  has  to  be  "backed 
up"  before  being  made  into  shoes. 

Fancy  leathers  are  used  extensively  for 
toppings  of  shoes  having  patent  leather 
vamps.  Facings  are  selected  from  fancy 
leathers  to  make  the  inside  of  a  shoe  attrac- 
tive  and   to   increase   its   wearing   quality. 

[51] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

Leathers  of  dull  or  glazed  finish  are  used  in 
typical  shoe  colors. 

Miscellaneous     kinds     of     kids     are     as 
follows :  — 

A.  Kangaroo    F.   Splits 

B.  Buckskin         a.  Seal  Grain 

b.  Buff 

C.  Sheepskin         c.  Oil  Grain 

d.  Satin  Calf 

D.  Chamois       G.   Enamel 

E.  Cordovan    H,  Sides 

Kangaroo  is  the  skin  of  the  animal  of  that 
name. 

Buckskin  is  the  skin  of  certain  deer. 

Sheepskin  is  the  skin  of  the  familiar  do- 
mestic sheep. 

Chamois  is  the  skin  of  the  animal  of  that 
name  and  by  courtesy  the  specially  treated 
skins  of  certain  domestic  animals. 

It  is  a  simple  matter  to  recognize  a  kid- 
skin  among  the  various  kinds  of  upper 
leather,  because  of  its  very  light  weight 
and  pliability. 

[52] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

During  the  winter,  leather,  in  drying, 
is  apt  to  become  frozen,  especially  where  no 
well-equipped  drying  loft  is  provided.  Such 
leather  becomes  weak  and  limp  if  thawed 
out  too  rapidly.  In  freezing,  the  water  in 
the  hides  which  have  been  hung  up  to  dry 
is  forced  out  and  stretches  apart  the  hide 
fiber.  The  wetter  the  hides,  therefore,  the 
more  demoralized  they  will  be  by  the  frost. 
The  treatment  of  rushing  the  frozen  leather 
into  a  warm  room  is  inadvisable ;  the  best 
method  is  to  allow  the  hides  to  hang  as  they 
were  and  to  tightly  close  all  openings  to 
the  outside  air.  In  case  this  is  impossible, 
it  is  best  to  place  the  leather  in  a  heap,  in  a 
room  where  the  temperature  will  not  fall 
below  the  freezing  point,  and  to  cover  it 
with  a  cloth.  In  case  the  leather  rolls  up, 
it  should  be  moistened  before  the  roll  be- 
comes greater  than  is  customary ;  it  will 
thus  become  firmer  throughout.  Some  upper 
leather  and  especially  sheepskins  for  lining 
purposes   are   aided   by  freezing,  since   the 

[53] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

leather  becomes  white  and  plump  and  also 
is  of  a  bright  color,  though  the  durability 
is  somewhat  lessened. 

The  popularity  of  white  leather  for  shoes 
is  increasing  wonderfully.  There  is  good 
reason  for  this.  The  modern  white  shoes 
have  a  stylish  and  fashionable  appearance 
which  has  won  the  hearts  of  women  of  all 
ages  and  conditions,  and  when  they  want 
a  thing,  there  is  always  alertness  in  supply- 
ing it.  The  new  love  for  white  shoes  is 
interesting  to  trace.  Years  ago  white 
leather  for  shoes  was  made  principally 
from  deerskins.  But  this  leather,  while 
attractive  when  new,  would  stretch  soon 
after  being  worn,  and  take  on  a  yellowish 
tinge.  Besides,  the  price  of  such  shoes  was 
very  high,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  they 
became  supplanted  by  the  cheaper,  but 
attractive  and  useful,  white  canvas  shoes, 
which  became  quick  sellers  during  the  season. 

It  is  greatly  to  the  credit  of  our  tanners 
that  they  have  been  able  to  perfect  and 

[54] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

put  on  the  market  a  white  leather  for  shoes 
which  answers  all  requirements  satisfac- 
torily. This  leather  is  made  from  cow- 
hides ;  the  white  color  will  not  fade  nor  turn 
yellow,  and  best  of  all,  the  leather  can  be 
easily  cleaned  and  made  to  look  good  as 
new.  Another  advantage  is  that  such 
leathers  can  be  used  in  shoes  that  sell  at 
popular  prices. 

There  are  many  common,  commercial 
grades   of  upper   leather. 

Willow  calf  is  a  fine,  soft,  chrome  tan- 
nage of  calfskin.  It  is  sold  in  three  colors, 
light  tan,  ox  blood,  and  olive-brown.  The 
distinguishing  features  of  this  leather  are 
its  durability  and  the  fact  that  it  always 
keeps  soft  and  pliable.  It  is  adapted  to  the 
highest  quality  of  men's  and  women's  shoes. 

Box  calf  is  a  storm-calf  leather  of  highest 
quality.  It  is  a  waterproof,  chrome  tan- 
nage in  a  medium  tan  color,  with  a  dull 
finish.  This  is  the  best  leather  obtainable 
for    rough,    outdoor    wear,    walking    shoes, 

[55] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

hunting  boots,  etc.  It  is  also  adapted  to 
men's  and  women's  very  fine  footwear. 
There  is  a  growing  demand  for  this  kind 
of  shoe.  In  the  uppers  of  the  best  storm 
shoes  you  will  always  find  box  calf. 

Royal  kid  is  a  black  chrome  calfskin, 
dull  finished  with  a  smooth,  natural  grain 
of  fine  texture,  soft  and  pliable.  It  is  used 
for  vamps  and  whole  shoes  of  the  highest 
grades  for  men  and  women,  and  is  a  very 
popular  material  for  the  fall  and  winter 
shoe.  The  desirable  qualities  of  fine  calf 
leather  are  making  the  demand  for  it 
grow  faster  than  the  supply  of  raw  material 
increases. 

Tan  royal  is  a  tan  color,  chrome  calf 
leather,  smooth  finish,  fine  grain,  excellent 
cutting  qualities,  uniform,  of  medium 
rich  tan  shades.  Tan  calf  leather  is  very 
attractive  and  the  tan  shoe  is  now  a  staple 
product. 

Cadet  kid  is  a  bright  black,  smooth- 
finished,    chrome    calfskin    for    men's    and 

[56] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

women's  fine  shoes.  This  tannage  and 
finish  give  a  remarkable  cutting  value. 
The  stability  of  this  stock  is  entirely  unique 
and  makes  the  finished  shoe  stand  up, 
keeping  its  much  desired  shape  through  the 
different  tests  of  manufacturing.  It  is  said 
to  be  the  best  calfskin,  by  the  best  judges, 
the  shoe  manufacturers. 

Bronko  patent  is  distinguished  for  its 
fine,  coltskin-effect  grain.  It  has  a  rich 
and  lustrous  black  patent  finish.  The 
results  obtained  from  bronko  patent  in  its 
workings  through  the  shoe  factory  and  its 
wearing  qualities  afterward  have  never  been 
equaled.  Bronko  is  one  of  the  finest  re- 
sults of  the  development  of  chrome  patent 
leather. 

Cadet  kid  side  is  a  chrome  side  leather 
that  closely  imitates  the  calfskin,  called 
cadet  kid.  It  has  a  bright,  lustrous  finish, 
and  a  remarkably  fine  grain.  It  is  surpris- 
ingly like  fine  calf  leather  in  appearance. 

Cadet  calf  sides  are  similar  to  cadet  kid 

[57] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

sides  with  the  exception  of  a  boarded  finish. 
This  is  another  black  chrome,  side  leather 
which  conies  very  near  to  a  calfskin. 

Mat  royal  chrome  side  is  a  special  finish, 
closely  resembling  calf,  used  for  the  tops 
of  men's  and  women's  medium  fine  shoes. 

Black  hawk  patent  is  a  well-tanned, 
well-finished  patent  leather  for  medium- 
priced  women's  shoes  and  for  tipping. 

Colored  box  chrome  side,  boarded,  is  a 
substitute  for  willow  calf. 

Black  box  chrome  side,  boarded,  is  a 
substitute  for  box  calf  in  medium  fine  shoes. 

Kangaroo  kid  side  is  a  back-tanned,  dull, 
smooth,  black  leather  nearly  like  calf,  used 
in  the  tops  of  men's  shoes,  and  men's  and 
women's  whole  shoes. 

Waterproof  black  is  a  high  quality 
leather  of  great  durability  for  men's  and 
boys'  heavy  shoes.  Waterproof  brown  is 
similar  to  waterproof  black,  except  in  color, 
and   is    a   leather   made   for   hard   service. 

Amhide  black  is  a  soft,  dry,  high-grade 

[58] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

tannage  for  lightweight,  comfortable,  sport- 
ing, work,  and  hard-wear  shoes. 

Amhide  russet  is  like  black  amhide  in 
everything  but  color. 

Hercules  storm  chrome  is  a  leather  dis- 
tinguished for  its  fine  grain  and  good  appear- 
ance of  medium  heavy  weight. 

Boris  is  a  heavy-weight,  soft,  water-proof 
leather  for  men's  medium  quality  shoes.  It 
is  finished  in  three  colors  and  black. 

Zulu  is  a  medium-priced  leather,  which 
makes  a  very  fine  wearing  heavy  shoe.  It  is 
made  in  two  colors  and  black. 

Bison  is  a  colored  or  black-finished 
leather,  of  a  high  grade,  very  comfortable 
and  durable. 

Ottawa  is  of  two  colors  and  black  fin- 
ished, and  is  suitable  for  high  quality,  heavy, 
rough  shoes. 

Sheboygan  calf  is  a  heavily  stuffed,  soft, 
water-proof  leather.  It  is  of  two  colors  and 
black. 

Dongola  calf  is  a  black  leather  used  for 

[59] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

durable,  medium-priced,  heavy,  outdoor 
shoes. 

Belt  knife  splits  are  sold  in  several  tan- 
nages and  finishes  of  the  most  improved 
manufacture.  These  splits  are  sorted  in 
all  weights.  Uniform  selection  is  main- 
tained, and  the  quality  in  every  way  is  of 
the  highest  order. 

Oxford  calf  union  splits  is  one  of  the 
highest  grades  of  grain-finished,  union  splits. 
It  has  an  extremely  soft  and  fine  appearance. 

Cambridge  calf  union  splits  have  a  most 
careful  and  high-grade  finish,  but  somewhat 
firmer  than  Oxford  calf. 

Flesh  splits  are  sold  in  two  tannages. 
These  are  the  highest-grade  flesh  splits 
that  it  is  possible  to  make,  and  they  are  a 
long  distance  ahead  of  the  ordinary  flesh 
splits,  their  improved  finish  making  them 
a  modern  and  largely  used  substitute  for 
satin. 

Ottawa  black  and  russet  splits  include 
a  variety  of  printed  splits,  used  for  shoes 

[60] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

in  combination  with  grain  leather  and  for 
whole  shoes.  They  are  selected  in  many 
weights. 

Flexible  splits  for  Goodyear,  gem,  McKay 
inner  soles,  is  leather  that  offers  the  greatest 
advantages  to  large  and  small  buyers.  It 
is  the  product  of  six  different  tanneries, 
assorted  in  all  the  usual  weights.  Great 
care  is  taken  in  the  manufacture  of  these 
splits  to  adapt  them  perfectly  to  the  shoe 
manufacturer's  needs. 

Flexible  bends  are  used  by  manufacturers 
of  Goodyear  welt  shoes  requiring  a  straight 
Goodyear  or  gem  inner  sole.  They  find 
these  bends  of  great  advantage  on  account 
of  the  small  amount  of  waste,  the  strength 
and  desirability  of  stock.  They  are  made 
in  six  tannages. 

Chrome  flexible  splits  for  inner  soles  fur- 
nish a  very  strong  and  durable  leather  for 
inner  soles,  taps,  and  outer  soles. 

Ooze  gusset  splits,  colored,  give  a  very 
low-priced  leather  suitable  for  gussets,  bel- 

[61] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

lows  tongues  for  high-cut  boots,  also  for 
the  quarter-hnings  of  Oxfords. 

Ooze  vamp  sphts,  black  and  colored,  are 
strong,  durable,  low-priced  leathers  suitable 
for  cheap  work  shoes  where  water-proof 
qualities  are  not  required. 

Chrome-tanned  embossed  splits,  colored, 
are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  patterns  for 
cheap  shoes  and  other  work  where  leather 
is  required.  They  are  durable  and  low 
priced. 

Leather  for  Belting 

A  native  steer  about  four  years  old, 
killed  in  the  month  of  October,  affords  the 
best  example  of  a  good  hide  for  belting 
manufacture,  that  is,  for  the  transmission 
of  power  from  pulley  to  pulley.  At  this 
age  and  at  this  season  the  steer  is  in  prime 
condition. 

On  account  of  the  great  and  enormous 
strain  put  upon  belting,  and  the  necessity 
for   its   running   true   upon   the  pulley,   it 

[62] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

should  be  of  the  highest  grade  possi- 
ble, combining  great  strength  to  prevent 
stretching,  and  evenness  of  grain  to  insure 
long  wear ;  therefore  only  hides  of  selected 
steers  are  serviceable,  and  these  in  turn 
are  rejected  when  they  contain  any  blem- 
ishes or  cuts  or  other  imperfections.  After 
a  hide  is  accepted  for  belting  purposes,  it  is 
subjected  to  a  generous  trimming,  the  head, 
neck,  legs,  and  belly  being  cut  away,  leaving 
only  a  small  and  compact  section  embrac- 
ing from  two  to  two  and  a  quarter  feet  on 
each  side  of  the  backbone  and  extending 
about  six  feet  along  the  same  from  the 
tail  forward.  This  is  the  portion  of  the  hide 
where  the  fibers  are  closely  and  firmly 
knit  together,  and  where  the  vitality  is 
the  greatest,  due  to  the  close  proximity  of 
the  network  of  nerves  radiating  from  each 
side  of  the  spine  to  all  parts  of  the  hide. 

The  hides  of  the  bull  and  cow  of  every 
breed  are  inferior  for  belting  purposes  to 
that  of  the  steer.     The  hide  of  the  bull  is 

[63] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

coarse  and  hard,  with  the  neck  very  heavy 
and  full  of  wrinkles,  causing  a  variation  in 
the  thickness  and  run  of  the  grain  of  the 
leather.  The  hide  of  the  cow  is  thin,  does 
not  run  uniform  in  thickness,  being  heavier 
on  the  hips  than  at  the  shoulder,  and  is 
lacking  in  the  firmness  necessary  in  good 
belting.  The  sharp  angles  of  the  hip  bones 
of  a  cow  also  tend  to  form  pockets  in  the 
hide. 

After  the  hide  has  been  trimmed,  it  is 
subject  to  the  process  of  "currying."  All 
membranes  or  particles  of  flesh  adhering 
to  the  hide  are  removed  by  a  machine  which 
shaves  the  membrane,  etc.,  off,  with  light- 
ning rapidity.  The  leather  is  then  washed 
and  scoured  by  machine,  which  removes  all 
dirt  still  adhering  to  the  hide.  After  the 
leather  is  thoroughly  cleaned  and  while  in 
a  damp  state,  it  is  placed  upon  the  table, 
and  greases,  composed  of  pure  animal  oil, 
are  worked  into  the  leather  on  both  the 
grain    and    the    flesh    side    with    brushes. 

[64] 


PROCESSES  OF   TANNING 

This  is  carried  on  in  the  cold  state.  It  is 
then  put  into  a  large  revolving  wheel 
containing  water  heated  to  a  high  degree, 
which  causes  the  leather  to  swell  and  pores 
to  open.  The  leather  is  then  taken  out 
and  put  into  another  wheel  containing 
heavy  mineral  oil  and  heated  several  degrees 
greater  than  the  water,  and  tumbled  about 
in  the  wheel  until  the  heavy  oil  fills  the 
distended  pores  and  fibers.  After  this,  the 
leather  is  allowed  to  dry. 

The  hides  are  allowed  to  remain  for 
several  months  in  the  tan  liquor  until  the 
green  hide  is  changed  into  leather. 

After  the  hide  has  been  changed  into 
leather,  it  is  stretched.  To  properly  stretch 
the  leather  for  belting  purposes,  it  must 
first  be  cut  so  as  to  remove  that  part  which 
shows  the  markings  of  the  backbone  of 
the  steer. 

Leather  is  stretched  by  placing  it  in 
clamps,  every  part  of  the  piece  getting  the 
same  pull.      (The  leather  is  put  into  the 

[65] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

clamps  while  damp,  as  damp  leather  will 
give  the  greatest  amount  of  stretching.) 

When  the  stretching  process  is  completed 
and  the  leather  has  thoroughly  dried  in 
stretching  clamps,  it  is  released.  These 
pieces  of  leather  are  quite  dry,  very  firm, 
and  not  very  pliable.  The  leather  is  now 
moistened  in  order  that  it  shall  be  more 
pliable  as  it  passes  through  the  finishing 
processes.  After  the  water  has  soaked  into 
the  leather  (called  sammied),  it  becomes  very 
soft.  It  is  then  subjected  to  a  roller  under 
heavy  pressure  to  take  all  the  unevenness 
out  of  the  hide.  It  is  next  thoroughly 
dried,  causing  the  fibers  to  shrink;  then 
again  moistened  and  put  through  a  polish- 
ing machine,  which  acts  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  rolling  jack. 

The  sides  and  centers  are  now  put  through 
a  cutting  machine,  which  reduces  the  leather 
to  strips  of  different  sizes. 

Belts  are  put  together  by  cementing  the 
parts.     Belt  cement  is  a  most  powerful  adhe- 

[66] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

sive.  It  actually  governs  the  strength  of 
the  belt,  as  the  belt  is  as  strong  as  the  weak- 
est part  of  the  joint. 

Rawhide  Products 

Rawhide  is  used  for  a  great  many  pur- 
poses. After  the  side  of  leather  has  been 
trimmed  of  the  portions  that  cannot  be 
used,  it  is  sold  to  the  lace  maker.  He 
measures  the  same  in  a  machine. 

The  trimmings  from  the  side  of  the  hide 
may  be  used  for  a  mallet  head  or  other 
tools  made  of  leather.  The  most  common 
products  of  the  strong  section  of  rawhide 
strings  are  shoe  strings,  belting  laces,  and 
parts  of  harnesses.  It  is  also  made  into 
leather  shoe  strings  that  are  used  in  the 
logging  camps. 

When  the  hide  is  selected  for  the  rawhide 
purposes,  it  is  first  passed  to  a  de-hairing 
machine,  where  all  the  hair  is  removed. 
It  is  then  fleshed ;    that  is,  all  loose  mem- 

[67] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

brane  and  any  flesh  that  may  have  adhered 
to  the  hide  are  removed  from  the  flesh  side. 
The  rawhide  is  then  placed  in  a  special 
bath  for  the  purpose  of  opening  the  pores, 
before  the  oils  and  greases  are  added  to  it. 
After  this  bath,  it  is  dried  thoroughly  in  a 
hot  box  and  then  put  into  wheels  which 
mill  the  greases  into  the  hide. 

The  hide,  which  is  made  hard  by  this 
drying  process,  is  put  through  breakers, 
where  it  is  thoroughl^^  worked  into  soft 
and  pliable  form. 

The  hide  is  next  passed  to  the  setting-out 
machine,  which  finishes  all  forms  of  leather 
—  by  condensing  and  strengthening  the 
fibers.  Special  oils  are  applied  to  both 
the  grain  and  flesh  side  of  the  hide.  It  is 
finished  by  hand  and  cut  into  laces.  This 
hand  finishing  is  usually  done  in  order  to 
reject  all  parts  that  are  not  perfect. 

Haired  leather  is  tanned  by  acid  —  a 
quicker  method.  The  hide  is  split  into 
sides  and  tanned  with  the  belly  stock  on 

[68] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

them,   which  is   used  for  car  straps,   cow- 
bell straps,  trunk  straps,  and  riding  bridles. 

The  By-products  of  a  Leather  Belting 

Factory 

There  are  a  great  many  by-products  in 
a  leather  belting  factory,  all  of  which  are 
used.  The  finest  strips  are  used  for  whip 
lashes,  small  pieces  are  used  for  the  French 
heel,  and  the  extremely  small  pieces  are 
used  in  leather  mats. 

The  by-product  from  the  belting  bull, 
which  is  about  fifty  per  cent,  is  used  for  shoe 
leather  and  leather  straps.  There  is  con- 
siderable leather  taken  from  the  belting 
bull  for  certain  harness  work.  The  belly 
is  thick  and  porous  though  not  tough,  and 
is  used  for  halters,  cow  bridles,  and  other 
parts   of  harness   where  the   strain  is   not 

great. 

Round  Belt  Making 

Round  belt  is  made  from  the  best  belting, 
but  while  the  strain  on  round  belting  is 

[69] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

not  severe,  the  leather  must  be  soft  and 
pliable.  It  is  selected  from  regular  stock 
of  native  steer  hide. 

Properties  of  Tanned  Leather 

Leather  that  has  been  tanned  is  made 
up  of  a  great  many  little  bundles  of  fibers. 
The  coarser  and  stronger  fibers  are  on  the 
inside,  and  the  very  fine  and  smoothly  laid 
fibers  are  on  the  outside.  These  fibers  are 
so  intertwined  and  so  elastic  that  when  the 
leather  bends  these  bundles  play  on  one 
another.  On  account  of  the  smoothness 
of  the  surface  it  may  be  polished,  and 
beautiful  finishes  and  effects  obtained  on 
the  leather. 

The  elasticity  of  leather  (which  is  due 
to  the  elasticity  of  its  fibers)  allows  it  to 
stretch  to  a  great  extent.  The  tendency 
to  return  to  its  original  position  is  very 
strong  at  the  beginning,  but  grows  weaker 
if  the  strain  is  continued  at  any  one  point. 

[70] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

Of  course,  in  stretching  the  leather,  there  is 
always  a  corresponding  drawing  in  another 
part  of  the  shoe,  which  gives  it  a  worn  and 
baggy  appearance. 

When  shoes  are  removed  from  the  feet, 
they  are  oftentimes  damp,  due  to  perspira- 
tion. The  stretched  or  strained  fibers  are 
apt  to  shrink  and  return  to  their  original 
position.  In  order  to  avoid  this,  it  is 
necessary  to  place  shoe-trees  in  them. 

When  the  linings  of  shoes  are  exposed  to 
friction  and  excretion  of  perspiration  from 
the  feet  of  some  people,  they  deteriorate. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  acids  of 
perspiration  (acetic,  formic  and  butyric 
acids)  have  become  so  concentrated  that 
they  act  on  the  fibers  of  the  leather.  These 
acids  exert  a  burning  effect,  causing  the 
fibers  to  lose  their  elasticity  so  that  they 
no  longer  play  on  one  another,  but  become 
fastened  to  each  other.  The  result  is  that 
they  become  hard,  and  any  attempt  to 
bend  the  leather  tears   them   apart;    and 

[71] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

once  the  union  of  fibers  is  destroyed  it 
cannot  be  repaired. 

In  order  to  keep  the  fibers  in  such  a 
condition  (soft  and  flexible),  they  should  be 
lubricated  often  (twice  a  week)  with  a  liquid 
followed  by  a  wax  paste,  usually  called 
shoe  dressing.  When  a  brush  or  a  piece  of 
cloth  is  rubbed  over  the  surface  of  leather 
containing  the  shoe  lubricants  (shoe  polish), 
it  produces  a  smooth  surface  called  a 
"shine." 

Compounds  which  shine  without  friction 
produced  by  brush  or  cloth  should  not  be 
used,  as  they  are  simply  varnishes  and 
one  coat  on  top  of  the  other  destroys  the 
leather. 

Substitutes  for  Leather         ^ 

In  olden  times  our  fathers  and  mothers 
used  handmade  shoes,  and  wore  them  till 
they  had  passed  their  period  of  usefulness. 
At  that  time  the  consumption  did  not  equal 
the  production  of  leather.     Knowledge  of 

[72] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

conditions  in  the  great  western  countries 
to-day  will  show  that  many  of  the  big 
cattle-raising  sections,  once  famed  for  their 
cattle,  have  been  taken  up  by  homesteaders 
and  are  now  producing  grain  instead  of 
cattle.  But  since  the  appearance  of  the 
machine-made  shoe,  different  styles  of 
shoes  are  placed  on  the  market  at  differ- 
ent seasons,  to  correspond  to  the  change  of 
style  of  clothing,  and  shoes  are  often 
discarded  before  they  are  worn  out.  We 
have  not  been  able  thus  far  to  utilize 
cast-off  leather  as  the  shoddv  mill  uses 
wool  and  silk,  etc.  The  result  is  that 
the  consumption  of  leather  is  above  the 
production,  therefore  substitutes  must  be 
used. 

In  shoe  materials  there  is  at  present  an 
astonishing  diversity  and  variety.  Every 
known  leather  is  used  from  kid  to  cowhide, 
and  textile  fabrics  have  developed  rapidly, 
especially  in  the  making  of  women's  and 
children's  shoes.    The  satins,  velvets,  serges, 

[73] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

and  other  fabrics  that  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  shoes  must  be  firm  and 
well  woven,  and  are  usually  supplied  with 
a  backing  of  firm,  canvas-like  fabric,  to 
give  strength. 

As  to  wearing  quality  the  old  saying, 
"There  is  nothing  like  leather,"  still  holds 
good;  but  people  do  not  buy  shoes  for  their 
wearing  qualities  alone  in  these  days.  Style 
and  intrinsic  beauty  are  considered,  and 
have  a  cash  value  just  as  in  any  other 
article  of  apparel. 

Each  fabric  is  made  of  two  sets  of  thread- 
like yarn  woven  at  right  angles  to  each 
other.  They  are  called  the  warp  and  filling 
(weft).  The  warp  is  composed  of  yarn 
running  the  longest  way  of  the  fabric,  and 
filling  runs  the  short  way  of  the  fabric. 
Since  the  warp  is  the  body  of  the  cloth,  it 
is  its  strongest  part  and  all  fabric  in  shoes 
should  be  placed  warpwise  across  the  foot 
of  the  wearer,  so  as  to  be  able  to  resist  the 

great  strain. 

[74] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  for 
legislation  to  prohibit  the  treating  of  leather 
by  chemicals  or  the  use  of  substances  to 
increase  its  weight.  Complaints  have  been 
made  by  a  number  of  shoe  manufacturers 
that  the  excessive  use  of  glucose  (a  form 
of  sugar)  in  sole  leather  has  resulted  in 
injuring  the  leather  and  fabrics  composing 
the  uppers  of  shoes. 

Representatives  of  large  leather  firms 
claim  that  the  methods  of  tanning  sole 
leather  have  radically  changed  during  the 
last  few  years,  and  that  the  small  quantity 
of  glucose  and  epsom  salts  that  is  used 
to-day  in  finishing  sole  leather  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  its  value,  and  is  in  no  sense 
an  adulterant  or  weighting  material.  Shoe 
manufacturers,  on  the  other  hand,  claim 
that  in  some  cases  larger  amounts  of  glucose, 
salt,  etc.,  have  been  added  to  the  soft 
leather  from  the  belly  of  the  animal,  in 
order  to  give  it  the  desired  stiffness.  On 
account  of  the  high  price  of  leather,  various 

[75] 


PROCESSES  OF  TANNING 

attempts  have  been  made  to  find  a  substi- 
tute for  it.  Most  of  these  substitutes  con- 
sist of  strong  cloth  treated  with  some 
drying  oil  like  linseed,  the  oil  having  previ- 
ously been  mixed  with  other  solid  sub- 
stances. 

A  prize  of  five  thousand  francs  has  been 
awarded  to  a  Belgian  inventor,  Louis 
Gevaert,  for  his  unusually  superior  artificial 
leather.  The  process  consists  in  the  more 
or  less  intimate  impregnation  of  stout  cloth 
with  tannic  albuminoid  substances.  Shoes 
made  of  this  are  said  to  possess  not  only  the 
resistance  and  elasticity  of  natural  leather, 
but  its  durability  of  wear.  Moreover,  they 
are  much  cheaper,  costing,  including  manu- 
facture, only  four  francs  (about  eighty 
cents)  and  being  sold  at  about  six  francs 
per  pair. 


[76] 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

THE   ANATOMY   OF    THE    FOOT 

VERY  few  people,  even  among  those 
engaged  in  the  shoe  industry,  know 
much  of  the  anatomy  of  the  foot.  Yet 
it  is  evident  that  they  ought  to  know  some- 
thing about  it  in  order  to  furnish  the  foot 
with  a  proper  covering. 

The  first  thing  that  strikes  a  person  on 
looking  at  the  human  foot  is  its  large  pro- 
portion of  bone.  On  pressing  its  top  surface 
and  that  of  its  inner  side,  the  amount  of 
flesh  will  be  found  to  be  very  small,  indeed. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  inner  and  outer 
ankle.  The  extreme  back  of  the  ankle  has 
scarcely  any  flesh  covering.  The  most 
fleshy  portions  of  the  foot  are  its  outer  side, 
the  base  of  the  heel  and  the  ball  of  the  big 
toe. 

[77] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

The  reason  for  this  disposition  of  flesh 
is  to  protect  or  cover  those  parts  of  the  foot 
that  support  the  body  by  coming  in  contact 
with  the  ground.  They  act  as  pads  and 
lessen  the  concussion.  The  abundance  of 
flesh  on  the  outer  side  of  the  foot  is  to  pro- 
tect or  act  as  a  shield  against  danger.  The 
inside  of  the  foot  is  not  exposed  as  much  as 
the  outside. 

The  foot  is  divided  into  three  parts, 
the  toes,  the  waist  and  instep,  and  the  heel 
and  ankle.  The  largest  bone  of  the  foot 
is  the  heel  bone  (called  calcaneum).  It  is 
the  bone  that  projects  backward  from  the 
principal  joint  and  forms  the  main  portion 
of  the  heel.  When  a  person  is  flat-footed, 
this  bone  is  thrust  farther  backward  than 
nature  intended  to  have  it.  The  connection 
between  it  and  the  tarsal  bones  is  lost. 

The  top  bone  of  the  foot  is  the  astragalus, 
and  it  forms  the  main  joint  upon  which 
the  process  of  walking  depends.  This  bone 
has  a  smooth,  circular,  upper  surface  that 

[78] 


nBuuv 


ASTRAGULUS 
er  pan 
Ankle. 


Lotuer  part 
'    k^ 


CALCANEUM 
heel  Bone. 


The  Bones  and  Joints  of  the  Human  Foot. 


The  Different  Parts  of  the  Foot  and  Ankle.    &ee  'page  86. 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

connects  it  with  the  main  bone  of  the  lower 
leg.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  this 
bone  should  be  in  perfect  harmony  (rela- 
tion) with  the  others  in  order  to  insure 
comfort  and  health.  If  the  arches  of  the 
foot  are  forced  out  of  position,  up  or  down 
or  sidewise,  this  joint  is  not  permitted  to 
do  its  work  normally. 

Rheumatism  is  a  frequent  evil  of  an 
injured  joint.  Hence  the  necessity  of  abso- 
lutely normal  action,  unhampered  by  ill- 
fitting  shoes. 

The  principal  arch  of  the  instep  is  called 
the  cuneiform  or  tarsal  bone.  Persons  are 
troubled  with  defective  insteps  to  quite  an 
extent.  Misshapen  joints  at  this  point 
due  to  shoes  that  do  not  fit  and  conse- 
quently disarrange  and  throw  out  of  position 
the  delicate,  natural  structure,  work  great 
havoc  with  the  comfort  of  the  foot.  Nine 
joints  cluster  at  this  point. 

The  bones  of  the  toes  are  called  the 
metatarsal   bones    and    phalanges.     There 

[79] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

can  be  no  doubt  that  nature  intended 
mankind  to  walk  in  his  bare  feet,  and  in 
that  event  the  phalanges  of  the  foot  would 
occupy  a  much  more  important  part  than 
is  now  the  case  as  a  result  of  modern  civili- 
zation. There  are  nineteen  bones  in  the 
foot,  and  the  disturbance  of  one  or  more  of 
these  will  serve  to  upset  the  entire  foot  by 
throwing  out  of  relationship  the  general 
unit  of  work  devolving  upon  the  whole 
number  of  joints  and  bones.  Each  joint 
has  its  accompaniment  of  muscles,  and 
each  lack  of  alignment  of  bones  and  joints 
provokes  discord  and  lack  of  harmony  in 
the  muscular  action. 

Muscles  are  attached  to  bones,  and  by 
their  contraction  or  extension  the  bones 
are  moved.  Very  few  movements  are 
effected  by  means  of  a  single  muscle.  The 
muscles  of  the  foot  in  nearly  all  cases  are 
in  combination,  and  are  so  complex  in  their 
action  that  the  best  surgeons  find  it  difficult 
to  describe  them  satisfactorily. 

[80] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  foot  are 
its  spring  and  elasticity.  While  the  foot 
has  wonderful  powers  of  resistance  and 
adaptability,  it  is  the  shoemaker's  duty  not 
to  strain  the  same,  but  to  provide  for  each 
action. 

The  most  sensitive  part  or  the  one  part 
that  is  most  susceptible  of  injury  is  the 
big  toe.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
tendency  of  the  foot  in  walking  is  to  travel 
toward  the  toe  of  the  boot,  and  in  a  word 
to  press  into  rather  than  shun  danger.  The 
shoemaker  provides  for  this,  first,  by  allow- 
ing sufficient  length  of  sole  to  extend  beyond 
the  termination  of  the  toe,  and  second,  by 
the  fit  of  the  upper  and  the  preparation  of 
the  sole.  In  this  way,  if  the  toe  of  the 
shoe  strikes  against  a  hard  substance,  the 
big  toe  of  the  foot  will  remain  untouched. 

Seventy -five  per  cent  of  the  people  have 
more  or  less  trouble  with  their  feet.  Some 
of  these  troubles  are  caused  by  the  manu- 
facturer putting  on  the  market  shoes  whose 

[81] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

lines  look  handsome  and  attractive  to  the 
eye,  but  are  lacking  in  any  other  good 
features.  Shoes  that  fit  properly  should 
have  plenty  of  room  from  the  large  toe 
joint  to  the  end  of  the  toes,  and  also  should 
have  plenty  of  tread,  especially  at  this 
point. 

A  mere  glance  at  our  bare  foot  will  show 
conclusively  that  pointed-toe  boots  are 
false  in  the  theory  of  design.  The  toes  of  a 
foot  when  off  duty  touch  each  other  gently. 
When  they  are  called  on  to  assist  us  in 
walking  or  in  supporting  our  body,  they 
spread  out  —  although  not  to  any  great 
extent.  This,  then,  being  the  action,  no 
sensible  maker  of  boots  and  shoes  would 
attempt  to  restrain  them.  Box  or  puff- 
toe  shoes  allow  the  greatest  freedom. 

The  pointed-toe  shoes,  which  join  the 
vamp  to  the  upper  immediately  over  the 
big  toe  joint,  exceedingly  high  heels,  and 
thick  waist  shoes  are  not  for  the  best  inter- 
ests of  the  foot. 

[82] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

The  evils  of  ill-fitting  shoes  are  corns, 
bunions,  and  calluses. 

Corns  are  mainly  due  to  pressure  and 
friction.  When  the  layers  of  skin  become 
hardened,  they  form  a  corn,  which  is  merely 
a  growth  of  dead  skin  that  has  become 
hard  in  the  center.  This  hardened  spot 
acts  like  a  foreign  body  to  the  inflamed  parts. 

A  hard  corn  is  formed  more  by  friction 
than  pressure.  It  is  produced  by  the 
constant  rubbing  of  a  tight  or  small  shoe 
against  the  projecting  parts  of  some  promi- 
nent bony  part,  as  the  last  joints  on  the 
third,  fourth,  and  little  toe.  When  this 
action  continues,  it  produces  inflammation. 
Rest  —  as  relieving  the  feet  of  the  friction  — 
decreases  this  inflammation,  leaving  a  layer 
of  hardened  flesh.  Renewed  action  repro- 
duces the  same  effects,  leaving  behind  a 
second  layer  of  hardened  flesh.  This  con- 
tinued action  and  reaction  brings  on  a 
callus,  rising  above  the  surface  of  the 
skin.     This    increases    from    its    base.     An 

[83] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

ordinary  hard  corn  may  be  removed  by 
scraping  up  the  callous  skin  around  its 
border,  and  prying  out  carefully  with  a 
knife.  Soft  corns  are  chiefly  the  result  of 
pressure  or  friction.  These  corns  are  soft 
and  spongy  elevations  on  the  parts  of  the 
skin  subjected  to  pressure.  Soft  corns 
are  mostly  found  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
smaller  toes.  Those  on  the  surface  of 
joints  by  mechanical  action  will  become 
hard. 

The  blood  corn  is  excessively  painful. 
It  is  the  result  of  an  ordinary  corn  forcibly 
displacing  the  blood  vessels  surrounding  it, 
and  causing  them  to  rest  upon  its  surface. 

The  bunion  is  an  inflammatory  swelling 
generally  to  be  found  on  the  big  toe  joint. 
The  chief  cause  of  bunions  is  known  to  be 
the  wearing  of  boots  or  shoes  of  insufficient 
length.  The  foot,  meeting  with  resistance 
in  front  and  behind,  is  robbed  of  its  natural 
actions,  the  result  being  that  the  big  toe 
is  forced   upward,   and   subjected   to   con- 

[84] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

tiniious  friction  and  pressure.  The  wearing 
of  narrow-toe  boots  that  prevent  the  out- 
ward expansion  of  the  toe  is  another  cause. 

The  comparisons  of  quantities  are  often 
called  ratios.  The  ratios  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  foot  to  the  height  are  different 
in  the  infant  from  that  of  the  adult  period. 
Between  these  two  periods  the  ratios  are 
constantly  changing. 

There  are  two  series  of  shoe  sizes  on  the 
market;  the  smallest  size  of  shoe  for 
infants  (size  No.  1)  is,  or  was  originally, 
four  inches  long;  each  added  full  size 
indicates  an  increase  in  length  of  one  third 
of  an  inch  (sizes  1  to  5).  Children's  sizes 
run  in  two  series,  5  to  8,  and  8  to  11 ;  then 
they  branch  out  into  youths'  and  misses' ; 
both  running  11|^,  12,  1^^,  13,  13^  and  back 
again  to  1,  1^,  2,  etc.,  in  a  series  of  sizes  that 
run  up  into  men's  and  women's.  Boys' 
shoes  run  from  2j  to  5^;  men's  from  6  to 
11  in  regular  runs.  Larger  sizes  usually  are 
made  upon  special  orders.     Some  few  manu- 

[85] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

facturers  go  to  12.  Women's  sizes  run 
from  2^  to  9.  Some  manufacturers  do  not 
go  above  size  8.  The  rate  of  sizes  is  some- 
times varied  from  by  manufacturers  of 
special  lines  of  shoes.  A  man's  No.  8  shoe 
would  be  nearly  eleven  inches  long.  These 
measurements  originated  in  England  and 
are  not  now  absolute. 

A  system  of  French  sizes  is  used  which 
consists  of  a  cipher  system  of  markings  to 
indicate  the  sizes  as  well  as  widths  so  that 
the  real  size  may  not  be  known  to  the 
customer. 

All  feet  are  not  alike  in  structure  and 
shape.  In  infancy  the  foot  is  broad  at 
the  toes,  which  press  forward  in  the  direc- 
tion of  their  length.  The  heel  is  small  in 
comparison  to  the  width  of  the  toes,  and 
also  short  in  length,  due  to  the  undeveloped 
bones.  But  during  growth,  the  thickness 
above  the  heel  bones  disappears,  and  the 
heel  itself  becomes  thicker  and  assumes  the 
beauty    of  perfection    at    maturity.      This 

[86] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

development  is  due  to  the  growth  of  bones 
which  must  be  well  exercised  and  properly 
cared  for  during  this  period.  The  various 
parts  of  the  feet  and  legs  do  not  mature 
at  the  same  rate  —  those  at  the  upper  part 
of  the  body  increase  at  a  greater  rate  than 
the  lower  parts.  Thighs  develop  first,  next 
the  upper  part  of  the  legs,  and  lastly  the  feet. 

The  adult  foot,  when  properly  formed, 
is  straight  from  heel  to  toe  on  the  inner  side, 
and  is  wider  across  the  joints  than  one  inch 
or  so  farther  back.  The  manner  of  walking 
has  a  considerable  bearing  on  the  character 
and  development  of  the  foot. 

There  are  many  sorts  of  feet,  which  are 
due  to  a  number  of  causes,  such  as  habits, 
climate,  occupation,  locality,  etc.  As  a 
general  rule  we  may  divide  the  feet  into 
four  classes  :  Bony  feet  —  those  with  very 
little  flesh  upon  them;  hard  feet — those 
that  have  plenty  of  flesh,  but  which  are 
almost  as  hard  as  a  stone;  fat  feet  — 
plump,    with   plenty   of   flesh,    but   having 

[87] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

little  shape;  spongy  feet  —  those  that  seem 
to  have  no  bones  in  them,  usually  found 
in  the  female  sex. 

The  characteristics  of  a  foot  are  common 
with  the  body  to  which  it  is  connected. 
Some  people  have  a  strong,  bony  frame, 
with  strong,  firm  muscles,  prominent  bones 
and  muscles,  and  a  flesh  that  is  hard.  The 
feet  of  this  type  of  person  are  usually  long, 
bony,  and  arched,  with  a  well-developed  big 
toe  joint.  The  heel  measurements  are  large 
in  proportion.  A  soft  foot  is  prevalent 
among  the  Scotch.  The  feet  of  a  person 
who  is  delicately  shaped,  with  a  small 
frame  and  thin,  small,  tapering  muscles, 
are  usually  thin  and  finely  formed,  giving 
evidence  of  quickness.  This  kind  of  a 
foot  in  a  man  has  a  tendency  to  develop  a 
flat  foot. 

A  person  with  a  form  inclined  to  plump- 
ness, full  of  exercise  and  activity,  and  a  good 
circulation,  has  a  well-developed  foot. 
The   heel   is   round   and   fairly   prominent, 

[88] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

although  there  are  no  special  bony  prom- 
inences. On  the  other  hand  a  person 
with  a  body  of  general  roundness,  but  with 
tissues  and  muscles  flabby,  and  a  languid 
blood  circulation,  has  feet  that  are  short, 
soft,  and  flabby. 

We  will  allow  that  these  four  different 
kinds  of  feet  all  measure  a  4  size  and  D 
in  width.  One  would  naturally  think  that 
the  same  size  shoe  would  fit  them  all,  but 
this  is  not  so.  This  size  shoe  will  only 
fit  one  and  that  is  the  bony  foot.  The 
hard  feet  require  a  C^  width ;  the  fat  feet 
require  a  C  width,  and  the  sponge  feet  re- 
quire a  B  width. 

The  same  last  may,  and  often  will  possess 
a  slight  variation  in  some  manner  or  other. 
The  fitter  of  feet  must  know  the  stock,  each 
pair,  and  be  on  intimate  terms  with  the 
peculiarities  of  each  last  and  the  inside 
lines  of  each  pair  of  shoes  before  attempting 
to  try  them  upon  the  feet  of  the  customer. 

Different  makes  of  footwear  are  apt  to  be 

[89] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

manufactured  over  a  slightly  varying  system 
of  measurements.  One  line  of  shoes  made 
over  a  small  measure  may  be  longer  or 
shorter  or  narrower  or  wider  than  some 
other  line.  The  heel  measurements  require 
careful  study  for  each  line  introduced. 
The  peculiarities  of  each  line  must  be  tested 
by  tape  and  measure,  and  the  foot  fitter 
must  have  a  strong  knowledge  along  these 
lines. 

We  should  measure  the  foot  by  the  stick 
if  necessary,  and  make  a  note  of  the  size 
and  width  that  will  be  likely  to  prove  a  fit. 
The  height  of  the  arch  must  be  considered, 
and  the  shape  of  arch  curve,  the  shape  of 
the  instep,  and  the  general  contour  of  the 
foot.  A  normal  foot  will  show  about  a 
half -inch  arch.  The  average  foot  will  carry 
from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  quarter  heel, 
without  putting  a  strain  on  any  of  the 
joints  of  the  foot.  Some  feet  vary  from 
this  by  a  wide  margin.  A  foot  is  a  trifle 
longer  in  walking  than  in  repose.     Allow- 

[90] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

ance  should  be  made,  in  using  the  measuring 
stick,  over  what  the  foot  actually  draws 
on  the  stick.  In  men's  shoes  the  allowance 
should  be  from  two  to  two  and  one  half 
sizes. 

When  a  one-legged  man  buys  a  shoe,  the 
dealer  sends  to  the  factory  a  shoe  to  match 
the  one  left  remaining.  In  these  days  of 
the  use  of  machinery  in  every  process  of 
their  manufacture,  shoes  are  made  with  the 
utmost  exactness  and  precision,  and  it  is 
easily  possible  to  mate  that  remaining  shoe 
with  the  greatest  nicety  in  size,  style,  ma- 
terial, and  finish. 

Few  people  have  feet  exactly  alike; 
commonly  the  left  foot  is  larger  than  the 
right,  so  that  one  shoe  may  fit  a  little 
more  snugly  than  the  other.  Commonly, 
however,  people  buy  shoes  in  regularly 
matched  pairs,  the  difference  in  their  feet, 
if  it  is  noticeable  to  them  at  all,  not  being 
enough  to  make  any  other  course  desirable. 

But  there  are  people  who  buy  shoes  of 

[91] 


THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOOT 

different  sizes  or  widths,  in  which  case  the 
dealer  breaks  two  pairs  for  them,  giving 
them,  to  fit  their  feet,  one  shoe  from  each. 
In  such  cases  the  dealer  matches  up  the 
two  remaining  shoes,  one  from  each  of  two 
pairs  just  as  he  would  where  he  had  broken 
one  pair  to  sell  one  shoe  to  a  one-legged  man. 
But  a  man  does  not  have  to  be  one- 
legged  nor  to  have  feet  of  uneven  sizes  or 
shapes  to  make  him  ask  the  dealer  to  break 
a  pair  of  shoes  for  him.  A  man  with  two 
perfectly  good  feet  came  into  the  store 
where  he  was  accustomed  to  buy  and  wanted 
one  shoe.  While  traveling  in  a  sleeping 
car,  his  shoes  had  been  mixed  up  with 
others  and  he  had  received  back  one  of  his 
own  and  one  of  some  other  man's ;  a  fact 
which  he  had  not  discovered  until  he  was 
too  far  away  from  train  and  station  to  set 
things  right.  So  he  came  in  to  buy  one 
shoe  to  match  his  own. 


[92] 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

HOW    SHOE    STYLES   ARE   MADE 

IF  you  examine  the  shoes  worn  by 
people  in  a  large  city,  you  will  notice 
different  styles.  Shoe  styles  that  were 
called  grotesque  a  few  seasons  ago  are 
comparatively  usual  to-day,  for  the  new 
designs  in  women's  footwear,  which  manu- 
facturers are  now  making,  are  the  most 
varied  that  ever  have  been  put  on  the 
market.  Pink  and  green  and  blue  are 
among  the  new  colors  in  materials  for  foot- 
wear. 

Some  of  the  styles  for  the  coming  seasons 
are  more  lavish  than  have  hitherto  been 
seen  in  the  women's  shoe  trade  of  America. 
Coronation  purple  velvet  boots  look  like 
an  extravagant  color  for  footwear,  but 
they    are    now    selling.     Samples    of   pink, 

[93] 


HOW  SHOE   STYLES  ARE  MADE 

green,  and  blue  shoes,  both  boots  and  pumps, 
are  being  made  up,  and  they  will  soon  be 
offered  to  buyers. 

The  style  of  the  shoe  is  dominated  by 
fashion.  All  styles  are  related,  that  is, 
every  part  of  our  dress  is  influenced  by  the 
prevailing  fashion,  ideas  of  color,  fabric, 
or  garment  outline.  To  illustrate :  when 
short  skirts  are  stylish,  women  wear  man- 
nish shoes  to  harmonize  with  them;  on  the 
other  hand,  with  long  skirts  they  must 
have  a  shoe  that  is  neat  and  small,  hence, 
the  short  vamp.  When  women  wear  white 
in  the  summer,  cool  canvas  shoes  spring 
into  favor;  when  gray  and  blue  dress 
materials  are  to  be  used,  a  variety  of  tan 
shoes  are  worn  to  harmonize,  etc. 

After  the  style  has  been  decided  upon, 
it  is  necessary  to  work  out  an  exact  repro- 
duction. An  expert  model  maker,  called  a 
last  maker,  produces  a  last,  a  wooden  model 
of  the  shoe.  In  order  to  do  this,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  lay  out  certain  plans  or  specifica- 

[94] 


HOW  SHOE   STYLES  ARE  MADE 

tions  for  the  details  of  the  manufacturer 
of  the  shoe. 

There  are  certain  parts  of  all  feet  that 
have  fixed  measurements.  To  illustrate: 
the  length  of  the  shank,  that  part  of  the 
sole  of  the  foot  between  the  heel  and  ball, 
in  every  person's  foot  is  always  the  same. 
The  part  of  the  foot  back  of  the  ball  or 
large  toe  joint  conforms  to  certain  fixed 
measurements.  These  definite  measure- 
ments form  a  basis  by  which  the  last 
maker  originates  new  styles  by  shortening, 
lengthening,  widening,  or  narrowing  the 
space  in  front  of  the  toes,  but  always 
retaining  the  true  and  fixed  measurements 
of  the  back  part  of  the  last. 

When  the  last  maker  desires  to  produce  a 
new  style,  he  takes  an  old  last  and  tacking 
pieces  of  leather  on  some  parts  of  it  (front 
of  the  toes),  he  builds  it  up  and  cuts  off 
other  parts.  This  patched-up  last  is  taken 
to  a  special  machine  (lathe),  where  a  number 
of  duplicates  are  turned  from  a  block  of  wood. 

[95] 


HOW  SHOE   STYLES  ARE  MADE 

The  ** pattern  maker"  is  the  man  in  the 
factory  who  makes  patterns,  consisting  of 
heavy  pieces  of  cardboard  bound  with  brass, 
in  the  shapes  of  the  various  pieces  of  leather 
required  to  make  up  the  upper  part  of  the 
shoe. 

The  pattern  maker  has  found  by  experi- 
ence that  the  top  part  of  the  shoe  also 
conforms  to  certain  fixed  measurements, 
and  by  working  in  sympathy  with  the 
last  maker  he  need  only  to  change  the 
front  part  of  the  vamp  to  bring  out  the 
latter 's  ideas.  With  these  measurements 
as  a  foundation,  he  puts  forth  from  time  to 
time  different  style  uppers,  as  buttons,  lace, 
blucher,  fixings,  scrolls,  straps,  ties,  pumps, 
etc.  This  is  the  way  new  style  tops  origi- 
nate. 

After  the  manufacturer  has  approved  of 
sample  patterns,  the  pattern  maker  receives 
an  order  for  a  certain  quantity  of  patterns 
to  be  made  over  a  certain  last  which  is 
submitted  to  him.     Working  on  the  fixed 

[96] 


HOW  SHOE   STYLES  ARE  MADE 

top  measurements  and  the  last  sumitted  as 
a  basis,  the  pattern  maker  draws  plans  for 
a  model  pattern.  The  standard  size  of  a 
model  pattern  is  size  7  in  men's  shoes  and 
size  4  in  women's.  He  is  also  given  an 
order  for  a  certain  number  of  widths;  for 
instance,  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  and  he  draws 
out  on  paper  a  complete  set  for  each  width 
in  the  size  7.  These  four  sets  of  model 
patterns  are  reproduced  and  cut  out  in  sheet 
iron  by  hand.  But  from  these  sheets  any 
number  of  iron  models,  and  any  size  regular 
cardboard  pattern  can  be  reproduced  by  a 
machine. 

Wood  to  be  made  into  lasts  comes  to  the 
shoe  manufacturers  in  a  rough,  unchiseled 
form.  The  lasts  are  made  of  maple  wood ; 
hollow  forms  used  by  traveling  salesmen  and 
window  trimmers  are  made  of  bass  wood. 

The  making  of  the  model  of  the  last  is 
the  most  exacting  operation  in  the  factory. 
It  is  produced  by  a  machine  most  important. 
The   principle    of    this    machine   has    been 

[97] 


HOW  SHOE   STYLES  ARE  MADE 

brought  about  by  the  pantograph ;  that  is, 
it  will  turn  from  a  rough  block  of  wood  an 
exact  copy  of  the  model  last ;  or  it  will 
enlarge  or  reduce  a  duplicate  of  any  other 
size  or  width,  so,  from  a  single  model  last, 
such  as  the  manufacturer  has  decided  on, 
any  number  of  lasts  can  be  made,  and  of 
any  size  or  width.  The  machine  itself 
consists  of  two  lathes.  On  one  is  placed 
the  model  and  on  the  other  the  block  of 
wood.  The  model  is  held  against  a  wheel 
by  a  spring.  By  adjusting  this  wheel, 
any  desired  width  last  can  be  obtained, 
and  by  adjusting  a  bar  in  front  of  the 
machine  any  length  last  can  be  produced 
from  the  block  of  wood. 

The  lathe,  when  in  motion,  revolves 
both  the  last  and  the  model,  the  model 
being  pressed  against  the  wheel,  which  is 
really  a  guide  for  the  revolving  knife  that 
digs  into  the  block  of  wood,  and  regulates 
the  depth  that  the  knife  is  allowed  to  cut. 
In   this   manner   the   model   is   reproduced 

[98] 


Rough  Unchiseled  Block  of  Maple. 


A  Last  after  leaving  Turning  Lathe. 


A  Finished  Last. 


HOW  SHOE   STYLES  ARE  MADE 

from  the  block  which  is  also  regulated  as  to 
size  and  width  by  the  wheel  and  by  the  bar. 
This  machine  is  so  accurate  that  a  tack 
driven  into  the  model  to  locate  the  center 
of  the  last  is  reproduced  by  a  sort  of  a 
wooden  pimple  in  the  block  of  wood  when 
finished.  The  model  sole  pattern  is  now 
tried  on  the  half-finished  last  to  insure 
accuracy. 

Notice  in  the  figures  of  lasts  that  the 
turning  lathe  has  left  stubs  of  wood  on  the 
toes  and  heels.  These  must  be  finished  to 
a  "templet."  The  templet  is  a  measure 
or  guide  used  to  indicate  the  shape  any 
piece  of  work  is  to  assume  when  finished. 
From  the  heel  and  toe  of  the  model,  a  piece 
of  iron  is  shaped  on  an  exact  arc  of  that 
model,  and  is  used  on  the  heeler  machine 
as  a  guide  to  form  an  exact  copy  of  the 
heels  and  toes  of  the  model.  This  machine 
works  very  rapidly,  and  by  the  aid  of  an 
irregular  shaped,  revolving  knife  it  quickly 
transforms  the  toes  and  heels  to  the  desired 

[99] 


HOW  SHOE   STYLES  ARE  MADE 

shape.  The  bottoms  are  again  tried  out 
on  a  sole  pattern  and  the  last  number,  the 
size  and  the  width  are  stamped  on. 

We  now  have  the  last  as  a  solid  piece 
of  maple  wood  and  turned  to  the  desired 
shape,  size  and  width.  Were  it  possible 
to  insert  and  extract  the  last  in  this  form 
from  the  half-finished  shoe,  no  other  steps 
would  be  necessary  in  last  manufacture, 
but  inasmuch  as  the  leather  is  stretched 
very  tightly  over  this  last  a  little  later,  it 
necessitates  the  introduction  of  some  method 
that  will  facilitate  a  quick  removal  of  the 
last  from  the  shoe.  This  is  accomplished 
by  cutting  it  in  two  parts  and  making  a 
hinged  heel.  The  fact  that  the  slightest 
measurement  changes  the  size  of  the  shoe, 
necessitates  great  care  in  the  introduction 
of  the  hinge  as  a  part  of  the  last,  and  in 
order  to  insure  accuracy  and  uniformity 
in  all  the  lasts,  they  are  marked  with 
templets  and  gigs.  The  hinge  must  be 
placed  inside  of  the  last. 

[100] 


HOW  SHOE  STYLES  ARE  MADE 

The  finished  last  is  so  constructed  that 
it  can  be  readily  inserted  or  withdrawn 
from  the  shoe,  and  the  strong  hinge  provides 
the  last,  when  inserted,  with  the  same  rigid 
qualities  as  though  it  were  one  piece. 
The  center  of  the  last  is  indicated,  as  before 
stated,  by  a  reproduction  in  the  side  of  the 
last  of  the  tack  that  was  placed  in  the 
model.  This  is  the  mark  that  locates  the 
position  of  all  the  holes,  and  it  is  done  by  a 
"gig"  in  the  following  manner:  — 

A  gig  is  a  piece  of  steel  having  cylinders 
that  guide  the  bit  of  the  boring  machine 
in  an  exact  perpendicular  line.  This  gig, 
being  placed  on  the  last  in  the  position 
marked  by  the  turning  machine,  forms  the 
accurate  location  of  the  bolt  holes  that 
hold  the  hinge. 

After  the  hinge  is  placed  in  the  last,  it 
goes  to  the  ironers  to  have  the  bottom  put 
on  it,  if  it  is  a  McKay  last,  and  a  heel 
plate  if  it  is  a  welt.  The  bottom  is  again 
tried  and  the  plate  filled  up  to  the  same. 

[101] 


HOW  SHOE   STYLES  ARE  MADE 

The  last  is  then  ready  to  go  to  the  scouring 
room.  In  this  room  the  last  goes  through 
three  operations,  first  of  which  is  ruffing. 
This  consists  of  scouring  with  a  coarse 
grade  of  quartz.  This  operation  must  be 
carried  on  so  that  the  sole  lines  and  insteps 
are  not  brought  into  contact  with  the 
quartz. 

The  second  operation,  medium  grinding, 
is  done  with  a  fine  grade  of  quartz,  and  in 
this  operation,  also,  the  worker  keeps  away 
from  the  toe.  The  third  operation  is  done 
with  a  much  finer-grade  quartz,  the  operator 
going  over  the  entire  last.  The  last  is  now 
ready  for  polishing,  and  after  that,  for  a 
heavy  coat  of  shellac.  It  is  polished  and 
waxed  on  a  leather  wheel.  Then  it  goes 
into  the  shipping  room  ready  for  shipment 
to  the  manufacturer. 


[102] 


CHAPTER  SIX 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY  —  GOOD- 
YEAR WELT  SHOES 


T 


HE  principal  methods  of  manufactur- 
ing shoes  are  the  following :  — 

Goodyear  welt;  McKay;  turned;  stand- 
ard screw ;  pegged ;  nailed. 

The  simplest  and  the  clearest  way  of 
showing  how  the  various  kinds  of  shoes  are 
made  is  to  explain  the  manufacture  of  a 
Goodyear  welt  and  afterwards  bring  out 
the  points  in  which  this  method  of  shoe- 
making  differs  from  the  others. 

Shoes  are  manufactured  in  up-to-date 
factories,  employing  hundreds  of  operatives. 
The  modern  shoe  factory  of  to-day  is  divided 
into  six  general  departments :  the  sole 
leather  department,  upper  leather  depart- 
ment, stitching  department,  making  depart- 

[103] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

ment,  finishing  department,  and  the  treeing, 
packing,  and  shipping  departments. 

In  some  sections  of  the  country,  several 
of  these  departments  are  often  designated 
by  other  names.  The  stitching  department 
is  often  called  the  fitting  department;  the 
making  department,  the  bottoming  depart- 
ment; and  the  sole  leather  department, 
the  stock-fitting  department.  The  depart- 
ments are  popularly  termed  rooms  for 
brevity. 

A  shoe  factory  is  designed  so  as  to  have 
a  width  of  about  fifty  feet  for  each  room, 
while  the  length  is  according  to  the  number 
of  shoes  to  be  produced.  A  width  of  about 
fifty  feet  gives  plenty  of  daylight  and  ample 
room  in  the  center  of  each  department, 
which  is  very  essential  in  shoemaking. 

Shoe    factories    are    usually    about    two 
hundred  feet  long,  while  many  are  nearly         '* 
four  hundred  feet.     A  few  exceed  four  hun- 
dred feet,  running  as  long  as  eight  hundred 
feet.     Some  are  built  in  the  shape  of  hollow 

[  104  ] 


o 

o 

o 


CO 

-a 
o 


i 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

squares,  while  others  have  wings  added, 
which  give  almost  as  much  floor  space  as 
the  original  building. 

The  average  factory  has  usually  four 
floors.  The  first  floor,  or  basement,  is 
occupied  by  the  sole  leather  department. 
The  next  floor  above  includes  the  tr  ^eing, 
finishing,  packing,  and  shipping  departments, 
and  also  the  office.  The  third  floor  is 
devoted  entirely  to  the  making  or  bottom- 
ing department.  The  top  floor  is  divided 
so  that  the  cutting  and  stitching  depart- 
ments have  each  half  a  floor. 

There  are  several  exceedingly  large  fac- 
tories in  this  country  that  find  it  advan- 
tageous to  divide  the  factory  into  more 
departments,  as,  for  example,  the  cutting 
room  is  divided  so  that  the  linings  and 
trimmings  are  cut  in  a  separate  department. 
The  skiving  may  also  be  done  in  a  separate 
room.  The  making  room  will  be  divided 
so  that  the  lasting  is  set  off  as  a  separate 
department  on  account  of  the  many  work- 

[105] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

men  and  machines  employed.  In  the  same 
way  there  will  be  a  division  of  work  so  that 
the  packing  and  shipping  will  be  set  apart 
from  the  treeing.  Then,  again,  in  the  sole 
leather  room,  the  making  of  heels  as  well 
as  the  fitting  of  the  bottom  stock  may 
become  independent  departments. 

The  system  of  making  women's  shoes  is 
practically  the  same  as  that  of  men's 
except  that  in  a  great  many  factories  the 
method  of  preparing  the  bottom  stock  is 
somewhat  different.  Most  manufacturers 
of  women's  shoes  do  not  cut  sole  leather, 
but  buy  outsoles,  insoles,  counters,  and 
heels,  all  cut  or  prepared.  These  soles  are 
in  blocked  form  and  large  enough  so  that 
they  can  be  cut  or  rounded  by  the  manu- 
facturers to  fit  their  lasts.  The  counters, 
when  bought,  are  all  ready  to  put  in  the 
uppers,  while  the  heels  are  ready  to  put  on 
the  shoes.  Whenever  a  manufacturer  of 
women's  shoes  cuts  his  sole  leather,  he  has  the 
same  system  as  that  in  the  men's  factories. 

[106] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

In  women's  factories  where  sole  leather 
is  not  cut,  they  do  not  have  a  complete 
sole  leather  department.  Instead,  they 
have  what  is  called  a  stock-fitting  depart- 
ment. There  are  independent  cut  sole 
houses,  etc.,  in  the  trade,  which  supply 
the  soles  to  manufacturers.  The  same 
system  of  buying  supplies  also  applies  to 
many  other  parts  of  the  shoe,  as  in  the 
top  lift,  half  sole,  welt,  rand,  etc.  In  the 
upper  leather  department,  manufacturers 
of  both  men's  and  women's  shoes  often 
buy  trimmings  and  other  parts  of  the  upper 
all  prepared. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  men's  shoe 
manufacturers  are  now  buying  heels  all  built, 
while  fully  nine  tenths  buy  counters  all 
molded.  The  soles  and  other  parts  that  are 
needed  for  a  shoe  are  put  up  in  different 
qualities  and  grades,  and  a  manufacturer  can 
buy  any  grade  of  sole  he  wants,  so  that  it  is 
considered  an  advantage  to  buy  some  parts, 
instead  of  cutting  them.     In  a  side  of  sole 

[107] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

leather  there  are  twenty-five  or  more  dif- 
ferent quaHties  and  grades  of  soles,  and 
very  few  manufacturers,  especially  in  the 
women's  trade,  can  use  all  of  these.  The 
greater  variety  of  shoes  a  manufacturer 
turns  out,  the  more  advantageous  it  is 
for  him  to  cut  his  own  sole  leather,  and 
prepare  all  parts  in  his  own  factory. 

In  this  country  the  number  of  factories 
in  the  shoe  trade  appears  to  be  growing  less 
and  the  average  factory  larger  each  year. 
It  is  estimated  that  there  are  at  present 
something  like  fifteen  hundred  factories  in 
all.  These  range  from  the  smallest  product 
up  to  the  largest.  The  average  factory  may 
be  said  to  produce  about  twelve  hundred 
pairs  of  shoes  per  day.  Many  turn  out 
five  thousand  pairs  daily,  while  a  few 
manufacturers  turn  out  ten  thousand  or 
more  pairs.  Several  manufacturers  and 
firms  have  half  a  dozen  or  more  factories 
and  have  a  total  output  of  between  twenty 
thousand    and    thirty    thousand    pairs    of 

[108] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

shoes  a  day.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
trust  or  monopoly  of  any  kind  in  this  trade, 
and  there  never  has  been  up  to  the  present 
time. 

In  all  factories  and  all  classes  of  work, 
the  "case"  has  always  been  of  such  a 
number  of  pairs  that  it  can  be  divided  by 
twelve  in  every  instance.  A  case  can  be 
twelve,  twenty-four,  thirty-six,  forty-eight, 
sixty,  or  seventy-two  pairs,  and  in  children's 
work  it  is  often  sixty  and  seventy-two  pairs. 
All  cases  of  these  numbers  are  regular 
cases,  whereas  any  other  number  would  be 
out  of  the  ordinary.  Of  course,  a  case  of 
shoes  may  contain  any  number  of  pairs, 
but  the  numbers  given  above  have  always 
been  used  in  regular  work. 

Cases  of  shoes  may  differ,  but  every 
pair  of  shoes  in  any  one  case  must  be  made 
exactly  alike.  All  shoes  are  made  in  cases, 
except  in  the  matter  of  custom  work  or 
single-pair  orders  or  samples.  In  making 
men's  heavy  shoes,  or  working  shoes,  the 

[109] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

regular  case  was  formerly  sixty  pairs  or 
thirty-six  pairs,  but  the  tendency  has  been 
of  late  to  have  a  standard  case  of  twenty- 
four  pairs.  In  the  men's  fine  trade  the 
regular  case  is  twenty -four  pairs,  while  in 
the  women's  it  is  thirty-six  pairs.  Long 
boots  for  men  have  always  been  made  in 
twelve-pair  cases. 

Goods  are  sold  by  the  samples,  sent  out 
with  the  traveling  salesman.  As  fast  as  he 
receives  an  order,  he  sends  it  to  the  main 
office.  Here  the  orders  are  subdivided  and 
sent  to  the  factories  making  the  goods. 
For  example,  an  order  for  seventy-five 
dozen  men's  shoes  of  a  certain  style  received 
by  the  main  office  from  the  traveling  sales- 
man would  be  sent  to  the  factory  in  the 
form  of  a  typewritten  order,  covering  the 
general  description  and  sizes  written  out 
in  the  proper  form,  for  each  case  is  made 
according  to  the  specifications  on  the  tags 
that  are  made  out  in  the  office.  These 
tags  specify  the  sole,  heel,  upper,  kind  and 

[110] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

quality,  how  stitched,  the  last  to  be  used, 
how  bottomed  finished,  treed,  and  packed. 
Everything  is  marked  plainly  on  the  tags 
so  that  a  buyer  can  have  any  shoe  made 
just  as  he  wants  it. 

This  order  would  be  sent  from  the  factory 
office  to  the  cutting  room,  where  a  clerk 
would  make  out  twenty -five  long  tickets. 

Twenty-five  are  made  because  the  shoes 
go  through  the  factory  in  lots  of  twenty- 
four  pairs,  each  lot  being  called  a  job  and 
when  finished  making  a  case  of  shoes.  The 
long  ticket  is  made  in  duplicate  form,  and  is 
perforated  so  it  may  be  tied  to  a  lot  of  shoes. 
Both  parts  of  the  tickets  are  made  out 
to  contain  the  various  operations  with  the 
specifications  as  to  detail.  The  lower  part 
is  sent  to  the  stock  or  sole  leather  room, 
while  the  top  part  remains  with  the  uppers 
which  are  cut  in  the  cutting  room.  While 
each  part  of  the  ticket  is  sent  by  a  different 
route  through  the  factory,  they  finally 
meet  in  the  form  of  finished  shoes. 

[Ill] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

In  addition  to  the  long  ticket  already 
described,  two  other  tickets  are  made  out, 
the  top  ticket  and  the  trimming  ticket. 
The  top  ticket  is  sent  to  the  leather  bins 
of  the  factory,  where  the  sorter  knows  by 
experience  exactly  the  amount  of  leather 
required  to  cut  the  order,  being  careful  to 
see  that  it  is  all  of  uniform  quality  and 
free  from  blemishes.  He  rolls  the  leather 
in  a  bundle,  attaches  the  ticket  and  sends 
it  to  the  cutter. 

In  the  cutting  room  there  are  three  classes 
of  cutters;  cutter  of  trimmings,  who  cuts 
lace  stays,  top  facings,  back  stays,  tongues, 
etc. ;  outside  cutter,  who  cuts  quarters, 
vamps,  tops,  tips,  etc. ;  and  the  lining 
cutter,  who  cuts  cloth  linings. 

Skins  of  leather  are  received  in  the  shoe 
factory  in  different  shapes.  Some  are  per- 
fect, others  have  blemishes  or  imperfect 
spots.  The  skins  that  are  to  be  used  for 
upper  stock  are  carefully  graded  by  two  or 
three   men,    as   to   quality   of   leather   and 

[112] 


A  Nine  and  One-Half  Foot  Skin  divided  to  best  advantage  be- 
fore Cutting. 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

weight.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  be 
sure  that  a  lot  of  shoes  made  for  a  certain 
dealer  will  be  uniform.  On  account  of  the 
leather  coming  in  different  shapes,  some 
skins  perfect,  others  having  imperfect  spots, 
the  cutter  must  place  his  patterns  in  such 
a  way  that  certain  parts  of  the  shoe  will  use 
up  all  the  perfect  parts,  and  others,  less 
important,  will  be  composed  of  the  weaker 
parts  of  the  skin.  This  explains  why  you 
sometimes  find  the  inside  top  part  of  a  shoe 
made  of  flanky  leather,  while  the  vamp  is 
made  of  a  better  grade. 

There  is  a  pattern  for  each  and  every 
size  shoe,  and  each  piece  of  leather  is  cut 
out  separately  on  a  block  of  wood.  Nothing 
is  wasted.  In  order  to  make  each  cutter 
as  eflficient  as  possible,  the  cutters  are  di- 
vided, so  as  to  have  a  different  cutter  for 
each  grade  of  leather.  In  this  way  they 
become  better  judges  of  leather. 

The  lining  cutters  use  patterns  and 
knives  on   drilling.     The  facing  is  cut  out 

[113] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

with  a  knife  and  pattern.  The  side  stays 
and  the  tongue  are  cut  out  by  dies. 

After  the  leather  has  been  cut  into  the 
desired  shape,  uppers,  vamps,  toe  pieces, 
back  stays,  lace  stays,  etc.,  cutting  at 
times  ten  pieces,  and  for  some  styles  of 
shoes  as  many  as  fourteen  pieces,  the  cutters 
take  care  to  keep  the  parts  for  the  same 
shoe  together,  matching  and  marking  them 
so  that  eventually  all  will  meet  again  in 
the  shoe. 

Machines  are  used  now  on  almost  every  op- 
eration, and  annually  several  new  machines 
make  their  appearance.  The  cutting  of 
uppers  up  to  four  or  five  years  ago  was 
performed  by  an  operator  cutting  the 
leather  by  running  the  knife  along  the 
side  of  the  pattern'.  Now  they  are  using 
a  cutting  machine  and  dies  to  cut  uppers  in 
nearly  all  factories.  This  cutting  machine 
is  called  the  "clicking  machine,"  and  it 
is  considered  quite  a  labor  saver  in  a 
department    where    it    was    the    universal 

[114] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

opinion  that  machines  never  could  be 
used. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  a  list  of  all  the 
operations  performed  and  have  it  complete. 
But  a  good  general  idea  of  the  system  can 
be  given  and  the  name  and  meaning  of  the 
main  operations  in  the  several  departments. 
It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  methods 
in  rooms  differ,  and  that  hardly  any  two 
factories  put  a  shoe  through  in  exactly  the 
same  manner.  The  general  system  and 
plan  is  the  same  everywhere  and  the 
machines  are  the  same  in  all  factories,  but 
the  details  and  minor  operations  are  so 
numerous  that  there  is  plenty  of  scope  for 
them  to  vary. 

The  function  of  the  clicking  machine  is 
to  cut  the  upper  leather  into  the  desired 
shapes  required.  It  consists  of  an  iron 
frame,  with  a  cutting  board  on  the  top  of 
it.  Above  this  is  a  large  beam  which  can 
be  swung  to  the  right  or  left  of  any  por- 
tion   of    the    board.     The  skin   to   be  cut, 

[115] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

which  may  be  of  any  kind,  is  placed  on 
the  board  and  a  die  of  the  design  or 
shape  of  the  leather  desired  is  placed  on  it. 
The  handle  of  the  swinging  beam  is 
taken  by  the  operator  and  moved  over  the 
die;  then  by  pressure  of  the  handle  the 
beam  is  brought  downward,  pressing  the 
die  through  the  leather.  As  soon  as  this 
is  done,  the  beam  automatically  returns  to 
its  full  height. 

These  dies  are  made  in  different  designs 
and  sizes  to  meet  the  different  sizes  and 
designs  in  the  upper  of  the  shoe.  One 
die  for  each  design  and  size.  They  mark 
the  vamps  for  the  location  of  the  toe  cap 
and  blucher  foxings  as  well  as  the  size  by 
means  of  nicks  in  the  edge  of  the  piece  cut. 
The  dies  are  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  in  height  and  so  light  that  they  do 
not  mar  the  most  delicate  leather. 

After  the  outside  cutter  has  cut  the  skin 
into  pieces  to  make  up  the  shoe,  these  are 
tied  up  in  separate  bundles,  that  is,  the 

[116] 


Cutting  the  Leather  by  Means  of  Pattern  and  Knife. 

Page  118. 


Goodyear  Stitching. 


A  machine  that  sews  around  the  edge  of  the  welt  and  joins  it  to  the  sole 
exactly  at  the  heel.     Page  119. 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

twenty-four  of  tips  in  one  bundle,  twenty- 
four  pairs  of  vamps  in  another.  These  are 
turned  over  to  girls  who  stencil  the  sizes 
on  the  edge  and  match  them,  that  is,  see 
that  each  upper  is  exactly  like  the  mate. 

After  the  different  parts  have  been  cut 
by  the  operator  of  the  clicking  machine  or 
by  hand,  the  edges  of  the  upper  leather, 
which  shows  in  the  finished  shoe,  must  be 
thinned  down  (skived)  by  a  "  skiving 
machine"  to  a  beveled  edge.  This  is 
done  in  order  that  the  edges  of  the  leather 
that  are  to  show  in  the  completed  shoe  may 
be  folded  to  give  a  more  finished  appear- 
ance. The  machines  are  operated  by  girls ; 
each  one  an  expert  on  one  particular  piece. 

The  order  number  and  size  of  shoe  are 
stamped  on  the  top  lining  of  each  shoe. 
After  all  linings  have  been  prepared,  accord- 
ing to  the  data  given  on  the  instruction 
card  attached  to  parts  of  the  shoe,  the 
parts  are  sent  to  the  stitching  department, 
where    the    stitchers    on    a    multitude    of 

[117] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

machines  stitch  all  the  different  parts 
together  very  rapidly  and  accurately. 

The  toe  caps  are  then  given  a  series  of 
ornamental  perforations  along  the  edge. 
This  is  done  by  either  "power  tip  press," 
or  a  "perforating  machine."  The  first 
consists  of  a  series  of  dies  placed  in  a  ma- 
chine by  which  the  leather  is  perforated  ac- 
cording to  the  designs  desired.  Each  series 
of  dies  represents  a  different  design. 

The  perforating  machine  resembles  a 
sewing  machine,  but  instead  of  a  series  of 
dies,  the  one  in  this  machine  is  made  of 
single  or  combination  dies  which  make  one 
or  more  holes  on  each  downward  movement. 
The  machine  feeds  automatically  and  does 
the  work  very  accurately.  The  cutting 
tool  is  kept  from  becoming  dull  by  pressing 
against  a  band  of  paper.  Ornamentation 
on  other  parts  of  the  shoes,  such  as  the  edges 
of  vamps,  etc.,  is  made  by  this  machine. 

Before  going  to  the  stitching  room,  every 
bundle  is  examined  by  sorters.     The  sorters 

[118] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

are  divided  and  subdivided;  that  is,  one 
man  always  sorts  tips,  another  vamps,  etc. 
They  examine  each  piece  for  imperfection, 
and  if  any  is  found,  the  piece  is  thrown  out 
and  a  new  one  put  in.  The  last  operation 
is  the  assembling  of  pieces.  Here  each 
job  of  twenty -four  pairs  is  brought  together 
and  securely  tied  and  numbered. 

This  stitching  department  is  one  in  which 
female  labor  is  generally  employed,  although 
in  late  years  more  men  are  being  used  to 
operate  machines,  especially  on  vamping  or 
other  heavy  parts.  In  some  parts  of  the 
country  it  is  called  the  fitting  room.  The 
work  of  the  department  consists  of  stitching 
the  different  parts  of  the  upper  together, 
so  that  it  is  ready  to  put  on  the  last.  The 
terms  used  mean  in  most  cases  stitching 
the  part  named  to  the  rest  of  the  upper. 
There  are  very  many  operations  in  the 
department,  several  of  which  are  named 
below,  together  with  their  meaning. 

The  bundles  of  pieces  which  have  come 

[119] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

from  the  cutting  room  are  placed  on  the 
table,  where  they  are  subdivided  into  three 
parts,  the  linings,  the  tops,  the  vamps  and 
the  tips. 

The  linings  for  the  tops  of  the  shoes  are 
pasted  together  (with  the  back  strap  and  top 
bands),  care  being  taken  to  join  them  at  the 
marks  made  for  that  purpose.  After  being 
dried,  they  go  into  the  hands  of  the  machine 
operators,  where  they  are  joined  together 
by  a  stitching  machine,  and  the  edges,  etc., 
trimmed.  The  sewing  machines  used  are 
very  similar  to  an  ordinary  home  sewing 
machine,  with  the  exception  that  they  are 
much  larger  and  stronger. 

The  lining  is  finished.  The  next  step  is 
to  join  the  lining  to  the  piece  of  leather 
making  up  the  outside  of  the  same  shape, 
called  the  top.  The  top  receives  the  eyelets 
by  a  machine  placed  in  proper  position. 
The  top  and  lining  can  be  put  together  by 
sewing  them  face  to  face.  The  top  is 
inspected  and  all  threads  clipped  off. 

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DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

After  the  shoe  uppers  have  been  properly 
stitched  together,  the  eyelets  are  placed 
on  by  a  "duplex  eyeletting  machine," 
which  eyelets  both  sides  of  the  shoe  at  one 
time.  The  top  of  the  eyelets  are  solid 
black  knobs,  so  as  not  td  wear  brassy,  while 
the  bottom  (which  clinches  inside  the  shoe) 
called  the  barrel,  is  of  nickel.  This  finishes 
the  shoe  upper. 

The  vamp,  tongues,  and  tip  are  then  put 
together.  The  edges  of  the  vamps,  quar- 
ters, tips,  etc.,  are  covered  with  a  cement 
made  of  rubber  and  naphtha,  which  is 
kept  in  small  bowls  on  the  benches  in  front 
of  employees.  Several  grades  of  cements 
are  used.  The  cemented  parts  are  allowed 
to  dry,  and  the  edges  are  then  turned  over 
by  "pressing  machines,"  which  gives  a 
finished  appearance.  The  shoe  is  put  to- 
gether by  stitching  the  vamp  to  the  quar- 
ters. This  work  is  done  by  both  men  and 
women,  and  is  work  which  demands  much 
care. 

[121] 


r 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

In  stitching  men's  uppers,  the  system 
varies  in  various  factories  as  much  as  it 
does  on  women's.  Here  are  some  of  the 
operations,  which  will  give  an  idea  how 
men's  uppers  go  through. 

Extension  or  toe  piece  sewed  to  vamp. 

Leather  box  stitched  on. 

Tip  stitched  to  vamp. 

Vamp  seamed  up  back. 

Top  folded  around  edge. 

Top  seamed  up. 

Eyelet  row  stitched  up  and  down. 

Lining  seamed  up. 

Side  facing  put  on  lining. 

Top  facing  put  on  lining. 

Lining  and  outside  pasted  together. 

Under  trimming. 

Eyeletting. 

Hooking. 

Vamping. 

The  upper  is  complete  when  it  leaves  the 
stitching  room  and  is  all  ready  to  be  put 
on    the    last.     While    the    upper    is    being 

[  122  ] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

prepared,  the  soles,  insoles,  counters,  and 
heels  are  made  in  other  departments. 

When  the  foreman  of  this  department 
has  received  the  tags  with  the  data  neces- 
sary for  the  preparation  of  outsoles,  in- 
soles, counters,  toe  boxes,  and  heels,  they 
are  sent  to  the  stock  room,  where  these 
parts  are  kept. 

The  soles  are  roughly  cut  out  by  means 
of  dies,  pressing  down  through  the  leather, 
in  "dicing  out  machines."  Before  the  soles 
are  cut,  the  leather  is  dipped  in  water  and 
sufficiently  dampened.  After  they  are  cut 
out,  they  are  made  to  conform  to  the  exact 
shape  by  rounding  them  in  a  machine 
called  the  "rounding  machine."  The 
roughly  died  out  piece  of  leather  is  held 
between  clamps,  one  of  which  is  the  exact 
pattern  of  the  sole.  The  machine  works  a 
little  knife  that  darts  around  this  pattern, 
cutting  the  sole  exactly  to  conform.  The 
outsole  is  now  passed  to  a  heavy  rolling 
machine,   where   it   is   pressed   by   tons   of 

[  123  ] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

pressure  between  heavy  rolls.  This  takes 
the  place  of  the  hammering  which  the  old- 
time  shoemaker  gave  his  leather  to  bring 
the  fibers  very  closely  together,  so  as  to 
increase  its  wear. 

Counters  and  toe  boxes  (stiffening  which 
is  placed  between  the  heel  and  toe  cap  and 
the  vamp  of  shoe)  are  prepared  in  the  same 
room  with  the  heels.  After  they  are  made, 
they  are  sent  to  the  making  or  bottoming 
room,  where  the  shoe  upper  is  awaiting 
them.  As  the  counter  is  an  important 
feature  in  the  life  of  a  shoe,  much  depends 
upon  the  quality  of  leather  that  goes  into  it. 

The  sole  is  next  fed  to  a  "splitting 
rnachine,"  which  reduces  it  to  an  absolutely 
even  thickness.  The  insole  is  made  of 
lighter  leather  than  the  outsole,  but  has  the 
same  thickness  and  is  cut  out  in  the  same 
way  one  at  a  time.  The  sizes  are  stamped 
on  them  and  they  are  sorted. 

If  you  examine  a  Goodyear  welt  shoe, 
you  will   notice  no   stitches   in   sight,   the 

[  124  ] 


Lasting.    Page  127. 


Welting. 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

seam  being  fastened  to  an  under  portion  of 
the  insole.  The  durabihty  of  the  shoe 
reHes,  to  a  great  extent,  on  the  quality  and 
strength  of  the  insole. 

The  smooth-appearing  insole  of  a  welt 
shoe  must  be  either  pasted  in  or  fastened 
underneath  in  some  manner.  This  fasten- 
ing is  accomplished  by  passing  the  insole 
through  a  very  small  machine  called  a 
Goodyear  channeler,  which  makes  two  in- 
cisions at  one  operation.  It  cuts  a  little 
slit  along  the  edge  of  the  insole,  extending 
about  one-half  inch  toward  its  center. 

The  upper  part  of  insole  made  by  the 
slit  on  the  edge  is  turned  up  on  a  lip 
turning  machine  so  that  it  extends  out  at 
right  angles  from  the  insole.  In  other 
words,  the  channel  is  opened  up  and  laid 
back,  forming  a  ridge  around  the  outer  edge 
of  the  sole.  This  forms  a  lip  or  shoulder, 
against  which  the  welt  is  sewed.  In  this 
way  the  thread  used  in  sewing  cannot  be 
seen  in  the  finished  shoe.     The  cut  made 

[U5] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

on  the  surface  serves  as  guide  for  the 
operator  of  the  welt  sewing  machine  when 
the  shoe  reaches  him. 

The  inner  and  outer  soles  as  well  as  the 
uppers  are  now  brought  into  the  lasting  or 
gang  room.  The  first  part  of  lasting  is 
called  "assembling,"  which  means  that 
many  parts  are  brought  together,  such  as 
upper,  counter,  insole,  box  toe,  and  last. 
The  counter  is  placed  in  the  upper,  between 
lining  and  vamp,  while  the  box  toe  is  shel- 
lacked and  put  in  the  toe  of  the  upper 
(provided  it  has  not  been  stitched  in  the 
stitching  room).  The  operator  first  tacks 
the  inner  sole  on  to  a  wooden  last. 

There  are  very  many  different  styles  of 
lasts,  and  in  cutting  uppers  a  different 
pattern  must  be  used  for  each  style.  Then 
the  upper  is  placed  in  position  on  the  last, 
and  it  is  ready  to  be  pulled  and  stretched 
to  the  wood  and  take  its  required  shape. 
This  is  accomplished  by  placing  the  shoes 
on    the    "pulling    over    machine,"    where 

[126] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

the  shoe  uppers  are  correctly  placed  on  the 
last  by  the  pincers  of  a  machine  holding 
the  leather  at  different  points  securely 
against  the  Avood  of  the  last.  By  the 
movements  of  levers  the  shoe  uppers  are 
adjusted  correctly.  Then  the  pincers  draw 
the  leather  securely  around  the  last  and  at 
the  same  time  two  tacks  on  each  side  and 
at  the  toe  are  driven  in  part  way,  to  hold 
the  uppers   securely. 

It  is  now  placed  on  the  "hand  method 
lasting  machine, "  where  the  leather  is  drawn 
tightly  around  the  last.  Before  this  opera- 
tion, it  is  dipped  in  water  to  preserve  its 
shape  when  formed  and  that  it  may  be 
more  easily  formed  by  the  machine.  At 
each  pull  of  the  pincers  a  small  tack, 
driven  automatically  part  way  in,  holds  the 
edge  of  the  upper  exactly  in  place,  so  that 
every  part  of  the  upper  has  been  stretched 
in  all  directions  equally.  A  special  machine 
by  means  of  a  series  of  "wipers"  is  used  to 
last  the  toe   and   heel.     After   the   leather 

[U7] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

on  the  surface  serves  as  guide  for  the 
operator  of  the  welt  sewing  machine  when 
the  shoe  reaches  him. 

The  inner  and  outer  soles  as  well  as  the 
uppers  are  now  brought  into  the  lasting  or 
gang  room.  The  first  part  of  lasting  is 
called  "assembling,"  which  means  that 
many  parts  are  brought  together,  such  as 
upper,  counter,  insole,  box  toe,  and  last. 
The  counter  is  placed  in  the  upper,  between 
lining  and  vamp,  while  the  box  toe  is  shel- 
lacked and  put  in  the  toe  of  the  upper 
(provided  it  has  not  been  stitched  in  the 
stitching  room).  The  operator  first  tacks 
the  inner  sole  on  to  a  wooden  last. 

There  are  very  many  different  styles  of 
lasts,  and  in  cutting  uppers  a  different 
pattern  must  be  used  for  each  style.  Then 
the  upper  is  placed  in  position  on  the  last, 
and  it  is  ready  to  be  pulled  and  stretched 
to  the  wood  and  take  its  required  shape. 
This  is  accomplished  by  placing  the  shoes 
on    the    "pulling    over    machine,"    where 

[126] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

the  shoe  uppers  are  correctly  placed  on  the 
last  by  the  pincers  of  a  machine  holding 
the  leather  at  different  points  securely 
against  the  Avood  of  the  last.  By  the 
movements  of  levers  the  shoe  uppers  are 
adjusted  correctly.  Then  the  pincers  draw 
the  leather  securely  around  the  last  and  at 
the  same  time  two  tacks  on  each  side  and 
at  the  toe  are  driven  in  part  way,  to  hold 
the  uppers   securely. 

It  is  now  placed  on  the  "hand  method 
lasting  machine, "  where  the  leather  is  drawn 
tightly  around  the  last.  Before  this  opera- 
tion, it  is  dipped  in  water  to  preserve  its 
shape  when  formed  and  that  it  may  be 
more  easily  formed  by  the  machine.  At 
each  pull  of  the  pincers  a  small  tack, 
driven  automatically  part  way  in,  holds  the 
edge  of  the  upper  exactly  in  place,  so  that 
every  part  of  the  upper  has  been  stretched 
in  all  directions  equally.  A  special  machine 
by  means  of  a  series  of  ''wipers"  is  used  to 
last  the  toe    and   heel.     After   the   leather 

[  127  ] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

has  been  brought  smoothly  around  the  toe, 
it  is  held  there  by  a  little  tape  fastened  on 
each  side  of  the  toe,  which  is  held  securely 
in  place  by  the  surplus  leather,  crimpled 
in  at  this  point.  The  surplus  leather 
crimpled  in  at  the  heel  is  forced  smoothly 
down  against  the  insole  and  held  there  by 
tacks  driven  by  an  ingenious  hand  tool.  In 
all  these  lasting  operations  the  tacks  are  only 
driven  in  part  way,  so  they  may  afterwards 
be  withdrawn  and  leave  the  inside  perfectly 
smooth,  except  at  the  heel  of  the  shoe, 
where  they  are  driven  into  the  iron  heel 
of  the  last  and  clinched. 

After  these  operations,  the  surplus 
leather  at  the  toe  and  sides  of  the  shoe  is 
removed  by  the  "upper  trimming  machine," 
which  cuts  it  away  by  means  of  a  little 
knife  and  leaves  it  very  smooth  and  even. 
A  small  hammer  operating  in  connection 
with  the  knife  pounds  the  leather  on  the 
same  parts.  A  pounding  machine  ham- 
mers the  leather  and  counter  around  the 

[128] 


Rough  Rounding.     See  "page  131. 


Edge  Trimming.     See  'page  130. 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

heel  so  that  the  stiff  position  conforms  ex- 
actly to  the  last. 

After  the  *' lasted"  shoe  has  been  trimmed 
and  pounded  down  to  the  shape  of  the  last, 
it  is  turned  over  to  the  tack  setter,  who 
pulls  out  all  the  tacks  except  a  few,  called 
draft  tacks.  The  insole  is  then  wet  to 
make  it  pliable,  and  is  turned  over  to  a 
very  experienced  operator,  called  the  "in- 
seamer,"  who  is  to  sew  the  welt  on. 

The  shoe  is  now  ready  to  receive  a  narrow 
strip  of  prepared  leather,  that  is  sewed 
after  it  is  wet  to  make  it  pliable,  along  the 
edge  of  the  shoe,  beginning  where  the  heel  is 
placed  and  ending  at  the  same  spot  on  the 
opposite  edge.  This  is  called  the  welt,  and 
is  sewed  from  the  inside  lip  of  the  insole, 
so  that  the  curved  needle  passes  through 
the  lip,  the  upper,  and  the  welt,  uniting 
all  three  securely  and  allowing  the  welt  to 
protrude  beyond  the  edge  of  the  shoe. 
The  thread  is  very  stout  linen,  and  is 
passed  through  a  pan  of  hot  wax  before 

[129] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

being  looped  into  chain  stitch  that  holds 
the  shoe  together. 

The  nature  of  the  stitch  is  a  chain  — 
two  rows  of  threads  on  the  outside  that 
loop  with  the  single  thread  in  the  inside 
lip  of  the  insole.  When  the  welt  is  finally 
sewed  on,  and  the  shoe  put  down  on  the 
bench,  it  looks  like  an  ordinary  shoe  resting 
on  a  wide  flange  of  leather.  This  flange  is 
the  welt,  and  to  it  the  heavy  outer  sole  is 
to  be  sewed  fast.  Should  a  single  stitch 
break  in  this  operation,  it  is  passed  to  a 
cobbler,  who  repairs  it  by  hand. 

Before  the  outer  sole  is  put  on,  the  edges 
of  the  uppers  must  be  trimmed  along  the 
seam  that  holds  the  welt.  A  slip  of  steel 
called  steel  shank  is  laid  along  the  insole 
where  the  hollow  of  the  foot  is,  and  a  piece 
of  leather  board  laid  over  this  to  give  the 
necessary  stiffness  and  prevent  the  shoe 
from  doubling  up.  As  the  welt  has  left  a 
hollow  space  along  the  ball  of  the  foot,  it  is 
necessary  to  fill  this  up,  either  with  apiece 

[130] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

of  leather,  tanned  felt,  or  other  filler.  Felt 
is  not  waterproof,  and  leather  squeaks, 
hence  a  mixture  of  ground  cork  and  rubber 
cement  is  used.  This  is  heated  and  spread 
on  the  sole,  and  run  over  a  hot  roller  until 
the  bottom  of  the  shoe  is  perfectly  smooth 
and  even.  The  shoes  are  placed  on  a  rack 
and  are  ready  for  the  outsole. 

Sole  fastening  is  performed  by  a  num- 
ber of  operations,  in  which  a  score  or  more 
of  separate  machines  are  used.  The  sole 
layers  smear  a  rubber  cement  over  this 
welt  with  a  "cementing  machine,"  after  the 
outsole  has  been  soaked  in  water  to  make  it 
pliable,  and  then  place  it  on  the  shoe  and 
tack  a  single  nail  in  the  heel.  The  "sole 
laying  machine,"  through  great  pressure, 
cements  the  sole  on  and  fits  it  to  every 
curve  of  the  last.  Then  the  sole  is  trimmed 
by  a  "rough  rounding  machine,"  which 
trims  the  soles  to  the  shape  of  the  last. 
This  machine  also  channels  the  outer  sole 
at  the  same  time,  which  is  necessary  for 

[131] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

the  next  operation.  The  "channel  opening 
machine"  now  turns  up  the  lips  of  the 
channel  and  the  sole  is  ready  to  be  stitched 
to  the  welt. 

The  outsole  is  now  sewed  by  a  waxed 
thread  to  the  welt,  by  an  "outsole  lock  stitch 
machine,"  which  is  similar  to  a  welt  sewing 
machine.  The  stitch  is  finer  and  extends 
from  the  slit  (channel)  to  the  upper  side 
of  the  welt,  where  it  shows  after  the  shoe 
has  been  finished. 

It  unites  the  sole  and  welt  with  a  tightly 
drawn  lock  stitch  of  remarkable  strength. 
It  sews  through  an  inch  of  leather  as  easily 
as  a  woman  would  sew  through  a  piece  of 
cloth.  The  stitches  are  made  through  the 
welt  and  outer  sole,  the  seam  running  in 
the  channel  of  the  outsole. 

The  inside  of  the  slit  in  which  this  stitch 
has  just  been  made  is  now  coated  with 
cement  by  means  of  a  brush.  The  channel 
lip  is  forced  back  to  its  original  position 
after  the  cement  has  dried,  by  a  rapidly 

[132] 


^^^^^B; 

.Ti                        ^k            ^B 

i|M^H_    ii     "'mHbBHb 

BB^Orn '-  ^^^^^S 

I     ^^'^ 

^^ng^iARH^L  <■  t^f  ^^^sHH^^^sH^^^Bii^H 

l_^~-% 

Leveling.    >See  pagfe  135. 


Heeling.     iSee  po^e  136. 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

revolving  wheel  of  a  "channel  laying  ma- 
chine." In  this  way  the  stitches  are 
hidden. 

Welt  shoes  are  stitched  on  in  three 
different  ways:  ''channeled,"  which,  when 
finished,  leaves  an  invisible  stitch  on  the 
bottom  of  the  sole ;  "  regular  stitched  aloft," 
showing  the  stitches  on  both  sides ;  and 
"fudge  stitched,"  in  which  the  seam  is 
sunk  down  in  a  groove,  being  almost 
invisible  from  the  w^elt  side. 

Every  stitch  must  be  of  such  a  nature 
that  it  is  independent  of  the  one  next  to  it, 
so  that  should  one  stitch  break,  the  others 
will  not  work  loose.  This  is  accomplished 
by  running  the  threads  through  a  pan  of  hot 
wax  just  before  entering  the  leather,  which 
causes  the  waxed  thread  to  solidify,  becom- 
ing, as  it  were,  a  part  of  the  leather. 

Notice  should  be  taken  of  the  difference 
between  the  way  the  outsole  is  stitched 
and  the  inner  sole  is  stitched  to  the  upper. 
In  place  of  three  threads  in  the  chain  stitch 

[133] 


I 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

"that  holds  the  welt  to  the  upper  and 
insole"  there  are  but  two  here  —  an  upper 
and  a  lower  one.  The  upper  thread  extends 
only  part  way  down,  where  it  loops,  twists, 
and  locks  into  the  lower  thread.  This  is 
the  reason  why  you  can  w^ear  a  welt  sole 
clear  through  without  its  pulling  loose. 

Shoes  that  are  stitched  aloft  go  through 
the  same  operations  as  the  channel-stitched 
shoes,  with  the  exception  that  the  rounding 
machine  contrivance  of  cutting  is  eliminated. 

Shoes  that  are  to  be  fudge  stitched  are 
sent  through  the  same  machine  as  the  regu- 
lar stitched  aloft,  but  an  additional  little 
knife  point  on  the  arm  of  the  Goodyear 
stitcher  digs  a  channel  in  the  welt  so  that 
the  stitches  on  that  side  are  sunk  into  the 
leather. 

The  outsole  is  nailed  at  the  heel  after 
the  stitching  on  the  "loose  nailing  machine," 
which  drives  the  nails  through  the  outsole 
and  insole  and  clinches  against  the  steel 
plate    of    the    last.     The    machine    drives 

[134] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

separate  nails  fed  from  the  hopper  of  any 
desired  size  or  length,  at  the  rate  of  three 
hundred  and  fifty  per  minute. 

The  edge  of  the  outsole  around  the 
heel  is  now  trimmed  to  conform  exactly 
to  the  shape  of  the  heel  on  the  "heel  seat 
pounding  machine." 

The  stitches  of  the  regular  stitched  shoes 
are  separated  by  a  series  of  indentations, 
giving  the  shoe  that  corrugated  effect  which 
adds  so  much  to  the  appearance  of  the  shoe. 
In  the  fudge-stitched  work  the  stitches  are 
entirely  covered  up  by  the  indentations. 

Then  a  leveling  machine,  called  the 
"automatic  sole  leveling  machine,"  with 
a  pressure  of  about  two  and  a  half  tons  to 
each  of  the  concave  rollers,  comes  into 
play.  The  rolls  move  automatically  back 
and  forth  and  from  side  to  side,  doing  the 
work  that  the  shoemaker  used  to  do  on  his 
lap  with  a  hammer  and  stone,  but  doing  it 
better  and  more  quickly.  It  practically 
levels  off  the  bottom  of  the  soles. 

[135] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

An  automatic  guage  regulates  exactly 
the  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  last,  and 
by  the  use  of  this  machine  the  operator  is 
enabled  to  make  a  sole  conform  to  that  of 
all  others  of  a  similar  design  and  size. 

Heels  are  formed  by  cementing  different 
lifts  of  leather.  A  machine  called  a  "heel 
cutter"  shapes  out  the  lifts.  The  heel  is 
then  placed  under  pressure,  giving  it  exact 
form  and  greatly  increasing  its  wear. 

In  speaking  of  the  ends  and  sides  of  a 
heel,  the  part  that  rests  on  the  ground  is 
spoken  of  as  the  top,  and  the  first  piece  is 
called  the  top  lift.  The  part  that  is  fastened 
to  the  shoe  is  spoken  of  as  the  bottom, 
while  the  side  nearest  the  toes  is  called  the 
breast.  The  wedge  is  a  flat,  heel-shaped 
piece  or  lift  of  leather  that  is  skived  to  a 
thin  edge  at  the  breast.  Being  thicker  at 
the  back,  it  tips  the  heel  forward.  Wedges 
are  made  from  thin  strips  of  waste  leather, 
or  from  sheets  of  leather  board,  and  are  cut 
out  with  a  hollow  die.     The  gouges  are  cut 

[  136  ] 


Sole  Scouring.   See  'page  138. 


Heel  Shaping.   See  page  138 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

in  the  sole  leather  room  from  scraps,  and 
are  a  regular  heel  lift,  having  a  horseshoe- 
shaped  piece  of  leather  with  an  opening  at 
the  breast. 

The  sole  leather,  insoles,  counters,  and 
heels,  in  the  stock  fitting  department  are 
"got  out"  by  being  cut  into  shape  by  a 
machine  die. 

The  heel  is  now  trimmed  of  all  rough  and 
surplus  portions  of  leathers  to  the  exact 
size  of  top  lift.  A  blower  attached  to  the 
machine  removes  all  scraps,  etc. 

The  breast  of  the  heel,  which  faces  the 
forepart  of  the  shoe,  is  trimmed  evenly 
across  and  with  the  desired  slant  by  means 
of  a  peculiar-shaped  knife  which  extends 
over  the  sole  at  shank.  The  edges  of  the 
heel  are  now  scoured  by  revolving  rolls 
with  molded  sandpaper  to  make  perfectly 
smooth.  Blowers  attached  to  the  machine 
remove  all  dust. 

There  are  several  types  of  machines  for 
fastening  the  heel  to  the  shoe,  all  very  rapid 

[137] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY. 

in  operation.  One  of  the  latest  is  that 
which  feeds  the  nails,  and  which  is  operated 
by  a  man  and  boy,  who  together  turn  off  a 
great  quantity  of  work. 

The  nails  are  left  protruding  slightly  above 
the  heel  so  as  to  retain  the  top  lift,  which  is 
now  placed  in  position  by  the  same  operator 
on  the  same  machine.  It  is  pressed  down 
over  the  heads  of  the  nails  securing  it  in 
position.  The  small  brass  or  steel  nails 
which  protect  and  ornament  the  heel  are 
now  driven  in  by  the  "universal  slugging 
machine."  This  machine  cuts  the  slugs 
frpm  a  coil  of  wire  and  drives  them  in  with 
great  rapidity. 

We  have  practically  now  a  roughly  formed 
shoe  ready  for  the  finishing  room. 

Here  the  heel  slugs  are  ground  down, 
heel  and  sole  buffed  by  sandpaper  rolls  on  a 
scouring  machine,  wet  down,  stained,  or 
blacked,  as  case  may  be,  finished  on  bristle 
brushes,  placed  to  dry,  polished  by  a 
polishing    machine,  bottom   stamped  with 

[  138  ] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

the  trademark,  and  passed  to  an  opera- 
tor whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  no  tacks  are 
left  inside  the  shoes.  Generally  girls  are 
hired  to  do  this,  as  their  hands  are  smaller 
and  it  is  very  important  that  no  tacks  are 
left,  which  might  cause  a  great  deal  of 
trouble.  If  any  are  found,  they  are  cut  out 
with  nippers  or  otherwise  removed. 

A  lining  is  also  generally  put  inside  the 
shoe,  covering  the  whole  of  the  insole  in 
a  McKay  shoe,  and  the  heel  only  in  a 
Goodyear  shoe.  Shoes  must  also  be  in- 
spected here  before  they  are  packed,  to 
see  if  they  are  perfect  in  every  way  and 
that  each  shoe  is  a  perfect  mate  in  the 
pair. 

The  shoes  are  now  sent  to  the  last  depart- 
ment, called  treeing,  dressing,  and  packing 
department. 

This  department  has  to  do  with  the 
finishing  of  the  uppers.  The  bottoms  and 
edges  are  all  finished  when  shoes  get  to 
this  department,  and  nothing  remains  but 

[139] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

to  finish  the  uppers  and  pack  the  shoes  in 
single-pair  cartons  and  then  in  wooden 
boxes  or  cases. 

The  different  uppers  are  all  finished  by  a 
different  process,  some  being  ironed  with  a 
hot  iron,  which  is  done  to  take  out  the 
wrinkles  and  smooth  the  uppers.  Ironing 
was  first  introduced  on  kid  shoes,  but  in 
recent  years  the  hot  iron  has  been  put  on 
nearly  all  kinds  of  stock.  A  shoe  must  be 
on  a  form  or  tree  when  ironed,  the  form  or 
tree  being  the  same  shape  as  the  last.  The 
whole  idea  in  ironing  is  the  same  as  that 
followed  by  the  tailor,  who  uses  a  hot  iron 
to  press  and  smooth  out  clothes.  The 
operations  in  detail  are  as  follows :  — 

Each  shoe  is  treed,  after  having  been 
drawn  over  a  foot  form  similar  to  that  on 
which  the  shoe  was  lasted,  and  any  stain  or 
dirt  which  may  have  been  carelessly  put  on 
in  former  operations  is  cleaned  off;  the 
shoe  is  sponged  with  a  gum  prepared  for 
either  black  or  tan  goods,  rubbed  down  dull, 

[  140  ] 


Ironing. 


4 


Packing. 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

and  then  rubbed  to  a  polish.  In  many 
patent  leather  shoes  the  treeing  is  to  clean 
off  the  surface,  as  we  said  before,  and  then 
to  iron  it  with  a  hot  iron,  which  takes  out 
all  stains,  and  leaves  the  leather  shiny  and 
black. 

The  shoes  finally  go  to  hand  operators, 
who  rag  the  edges  and  heels,  leaving  them 
ready  to  be  laced  and  put  into  the  boxes. 
After  lacing,  the  shoes  are  passed  to  inspec- 
tors, whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  they  are 
perfect,  to  throw  out  all  which  are  not, 
make  a  record  of  them,  and  pass  the  perfect 
shoes  to  the  packers,  who  see  that  the  sizes 
are  right,  that  each  pair  is  mated,  and  placed 
in  paper  cartons,  ready  to  be  packed  in 
wooden  cases  for  shipment.  The  packing  of 
cartons  into  wooden  cases  is  done  by  men 
who  nail  on  the  lid  when  each  case  is  full, 
mark  where  goods  are  to  be  sent,  make  a 
record  of  same  and  load  the  cases  into 
freight  cars. 

There  are  other  uppers  that  are  treed, 

[141] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

such  as  wax  calf,  for  instance,  and  split 
uppers,  which  are  used  in  heavy  shoes. 
The  main  idea  of  treeing  a  shoe  is  to  give 
it  a  smooth  and  finished  appearance  and  a 
good  "feel."  In  the  regular  treeing  opera- 
tion they  use  liquid  preparations,  often 
called  composition,  and  these  are  worked 
into  the  upper,  filling  it  to  some  extent. 
French  chalk  is  used  a  great  deal  in  some 
uppers,  and  oil  or  some  form  of  grease  or 
gum  is  also  used,  all  of  which  make  the 
upper  as  it  was  when  first  put  on  the  cutting 
board  of  the  shoe  factory.  All  work  done 
in  this  room  is  intended  to  give  leather  its 
original  luster,  which  has  been  lost  to  a 
certain  extent  in  going  through  the  different 
rooms  and  in  being  handled  so  much. 

There  are  still  other  uppers  that  may  not 
be  treed  or  ironed  but  merely  cleaned  and 
polished  to  give  luster.  Some  of  these  may 
be  dressed.  To  dress  a  shoe  means  to  put 
on  a  liquid  dressing.  In  some  cases  two 
coats  of  dressing  are  put  on  and  in  other 

[142] 


DEPARTMENTS  OF  A  SHOE  FACTORY 

cases  one  coat.  A  shoe  can  have  a  dull 
dressing  or  a  bright  dressing,  according  to 
how  the  buyer  prefers  to  have  his  shoes 
look. 


[143] 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 

McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

THE  McKay  process  is  used  very 
extensively  in  the  manufacture  of 
cheap  shoes.  Its  introduction  was  a  great 
improvement  over  the  naiKng  and  pegging 
of  the  soles  to  the  uppers.  It  allows 
the  two  to  be  stitched  together  by  means 
of  a  straight  needle  running  through  the 
entire  thickness  of  upper,  sole,  and  insole. 

In  following  the  McKay  process  through 
the  factory,  we  find  it  very  similar  to  the 
Goodyear  welt  process,  which  has  been 
explained,  the  main  difference  being  in  the 
methods  of  fastening  the  sole  to  the  uppers. 

The  lasts  and  patterns  are  obtained  in 
the  same  manner  as  described  in  the  previ- 
ous chapter.  The  order  is  made  out  in  the 
factory  office,  and  the  ticket  is  given  to  the 

[144] 


WELT 


OUTSOLE 


insole: 

Cork  Rlling 


Stitch  seam 


Indentations 
Between  Stitches 


INSEAM 


M^Kay  Seam 


Sock  Lining 

OuTSOLE 

Insole 

Cross  Sections  of  Welt  Shoe  and  McKay  Sewed  Shoe. 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

sorter,  who  selects  the  required  number  of 
skins,  which  he  rolls  in  a  bundle  and  turns 
over  to  the  cutter.  The  cutters  form  the 
various  pieces  of  leather  and  linings,  which 
are  tied  up  in  bundles  and  sent  to  the 
stitching  room.  Here  they  pass  through 
the  various  sewing  machines,  finally  coming 
out  in  the  form  of  a  complete  upper  ready 
to  be  attached  to  the  bottoms. 

The  soles,  insoles,  counters,  and  heels 
for  McKay  shoes  are  all  formed  in  the  same 
room,  as  described  in  the  Goodyear  process. 

There  is  a  difference  in  making  ready  the 
outsoles  and  insoles.  It  will  be  recalled 
that  the  outsole  for  the  Goodyear  welt 
shoe  was  simply  a  block  of  leather  cut  to 
fit  the  shoe  and  was  not  channeled.  The 
outsole  for  the  McKay  shoe  is  run  through 
a  channeling  machine,  which  cuts  a  slit 
around  the  edge  of  the  sole,  folds  the 
leather  back,  and  digs  a  little  trench  along 
the  inside  of  the  slit.  It  will  also  be  re- 
membered that  the  insole  of  the  Goodyear 

[145] 


*        McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

welt  shoe  was  channeled  with  two  slits,  one 
of  which  was  turned  back  to  form  the  breast 
for  sewing  on  the  welt  strip.  The  insole  of 
a  McKay  shoe  is  not  channeled  in  any  way, 
but  is  left  plain,  like  the  outsole  of  the 
Goodyear  welt.  The  uppers,  the  soles, 
insoles,  counters,  and  heels  all  having  been 
made  ready,  the  pieces  are  taken  to  the 
lasting  room. 

The  first  process  is  called  "assembling." 
The  operator  takes  up  one  of  the  uppers, 
inserts  the  last,  sticks  in  a  counter  between 
the  lining  and  the  outside,  puts  in  a  "box" 
(a  stout  piece  of  canvas  to  give  stability 
to  the  toe)  at  the  toe,  beneath  the  tip,  puts 
in  the  insole,  and  then  may  pull  the  shoe 
tight  on  the  last  or  give  it  to  the  operator 
on  the  pulling  over  machine  to  have  it 
done.  The  pulling  over  machine  is  now 
used  in  nearly  all  factories,  having  dis- 
placed hand  pulling  the  same  as  the  lasting 
machines  have  displaced  hand  lasting.  The 
assembling,  pulling,  and  lasting  on  the  ma- 

[  146  ] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 


o 


chine  are  all  parts  of  the  regular  operation 
of  lasting.  The  hand  laster  had  to  do  all 
three  parts  in  former  times,  but  now  there 
are  machines  to  do  nearly  everything,  and 
at  the  present  time  the  operation  of  lasting 
is  divided  into  assembling,  pulling  over,  and 
lasting  on  the  machine.  But  even  these 
machines  do  not  do  it  all,  as  there  is  surplus 
upper  to  be  cut  away,  toes  to  be  pounded 
down,  and  filling  to  be  put  in  the  bottom, 
all  of  which  are  done  on  a  McKay  shoe  be- 
fore the  sole  can  be  laid.  There  are  ma- 
chines to  do  these  parts,  too. 

A  trimmer  (this  is  done  by  hand)  now 
takes  the  shoe,  trims  off  all  the  surplus 
leather,  tacks  in  the  shank  (a  little  piece 
of  steel  to  give  rigidity  to  the  shank  of  the 
sole),  fills  all  up  smoothly  and  then  passes 
it  to  the  sole  layer,  who  puts  on  the  outer 
sole  and  tacks  it  in  place. 

The  last  is  now  pulled  out  of  the  shoe 
and  it  is  ready  for  the  McKay  sewing 
machine. 

[147] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

This  machine  sews  right  through  the 
inner  and  outer  sole,  and  at  the  same  time 
catches  the  edges  of  the  upper  leather  and 
the  lining  in  between  the  two  and  draws 
them  all  snugly  and  firmly  together.  The 
stitches  are  made  right  along  in  the  channel 
of  the  outer  sole,  which  is  deep  enough  to 
admit  the  row  of  stitches  without  raising 
a  ridge  on  the  outside  of  the  sole,  after 
the  channel  is  closed  up  and  leveled.  The 
channel  is  next  filled  with  cement  and 
passed  on  to  the  leveler,  which  turns  down 
the  loosened  flap  of  leather,  presses  it  all 
out  smooth,  and  covers  the  seam  up  so 
completely  that  no  trace  of  the  sewing  is 
to  be  seen.  This  little  folded-over  flap  of 
leather  serves  the  double  purpose  of  hiding 
the  stitches  in  the  sole,  and  at  the  same 
tinae  protecting  them  from  wear  against 
the  ground. 

The  shoe  is  then  ready  to  be  heeled,  and 
from  here  to  the  shipping  door  the  McKay 
generally  goes  through  the  same  process  as 

[  148  ] 


Stitching. 


Tacking. 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

a  welt.  After  heeling,  the  McKay  shoes  are 
relasted  or  have  followers  put  in  to  keep 
them  in  shape  while  going  through.  The 
sock  lining  may  be  put  in  here,  too,  before 
relasting,  or  it  may  not  be  put  in  till  the 
shoes  get  to  another  room.  The  McKay 
lasting  last  must  be  pulled  from  the  shoe 
to  have  the  bottoms  and  heels  put  on  and 
this  also  applies  to  a  pegged  or  nailed  shoe. 
But  in  the  case  of  a  welt  shoe  or  a  turn 
shoe,  both  stay  on  the  original  last  until 
the  bottoms  and  heels  have  been  fastened 
on.  The  turn  shoe  being  lasted  inside  out, 
must  come  off  the  last  to  be  turned  right 
side  out,  and  it  goes  right  on  the  last  as 
soon  as  it  can  be  turned.  The  different 
methods  of  fastening  the  bottoms  constitute 
the  main  difference  between  Goodyear  and 
turn  shoes  on  the  one  hand,  and  McKay, 
pegged,  and  nailed  on  the  other.  The 
bottom  stock  must  be  prepared  differently 
in  order  to  fit  the  methods.  Thus  it  is 
seen  that  only  two  departments  are  affected, 

[149] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

namely,  the  sole  leather  and  the  making 
departments.  In  the  cutting,  stitching, 
finishing,  treeing,  and  packing,  all  operations 
are  practically  the  same  on  every  shoe,  no 
matter  how  it  is  bottomed.  The  patterns, 
however,  by  which  shoes  are  cut  may  be 
different. 

In  the  finishing  room  all  of  the  finishing 
of  the  bottoms  and  heel  edges  is  done.  The 
heels  are  sandpapered  or  scoured,  and  are 
then  blacked  and  polished  under  hot-iron 
pressure.  Considerable  wax  is  used  on 
the  edge  and  is  melted  by  the  hot  iron. 
Heel  edges  may  also  be  finished  on  a  wheel 
or  roll.  There  are  several  different  ways, 
but  the  object  of  each  method  is  to  give  a 
hard,  black,  and  highly  polished  surface  to 
the  edge. 

In  finishing  the  bottom  the  top  lift  is 
scoured  or  buffed,  and  all  of  the  sole  and 
the  breast  of  the  heel  also.  Each  is  a 
different  process,  a  different  operator  attend- 
ing to  each  part.     The  object  of  scouring 

[150] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

or  buffing  with  sandpaper  is  to  get  a  smooth 
foundation  for  the  finish,  which  is  put  on 
next,  and  which  may  be  all  the  same  color 
in  all  parts  of  the  bottom  or  may  have  one 
color  in  the  shank  and  another  in  the  fore- 
part. The  stains  and  blackings  are  used 
on  bottoms,  and  these  are  brought  to  a 
high,  hard  gloss  by  means  of  rolls  and 
brushes.  Hot  irons  are  often  used  on  black 
shanks  and  bottoms  to  give  added  hardness 
and  luster  to  the  finish. 

The  turned  or  turn  shoe  is  a  woman's 
fine  shoe  that  is  made  wrong  side  out, 
then  turned  right  side  out.  The  sole  is 
fastened  to  the  last,  and  the  upper  is 
twisted  over,  the  wrong  side  out.  Then 
the  two  are  sewed  together,  the  thread 
catching  through  a  channel  or  shoulder 
cut  in  the  edge  of  the  sole.  The  seam  does 
not  come  through  to  the  bottom  of  the  sole, 
nor  to  any  part  inside  where  it  would  chafe 
the  foot. 

The  preparation  of  the  upper  for  a  turn 

[151] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

shoe  is  identical  with  that  of  a  welt  or 
McKay,  with  the  exception  that  the  back 
is  cut  a  little  longer  and  a  little  larger,  in 
order  to  last  it  over  the  sole.  The  impor- 
tant difference  in  the  make-up  of  a  turn 
shoe  as  compared  with  that  of  a  McKay  or 
welt  is  that  it  has  no  insole,  the  upper 
being  sewed  directly  to  a  portion  of  the 
sole  itself. 

As  the  cutting  of  the  uppers  and  the 
stitching  operations  of  a  turn  shoe  are  the 
same  as  the  Goodyear  and  McKay,  and 
have  been  explained,  we  will  take  up  the 
forming  of  the  sole,  which  is  entirely 
different  from  either  of  the  other  two 
methods. 

A  turn  shoe  is  put  together  wrong  side  out, 
and  it  is  necessary,  during  the  course  of  mak- 
ing, to  turn  it  by  rolling  the  sole  up  like  a  roll 
of  carpet.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  nothing 
but  good  quality,  pliable  leather  can  be 
used  satisfactorily,  and  great  care  is  taken 
to  include  nothing  but  the  best. 

[152] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

The  soles  are  cut  out  on  the  beam  ma- 
chines, also  previously  described.  They  are 
then  channeled  on  the  side  that  is  next 
to  the  foot.  This  channeling  is  similar  to 
that  done  on  the  welt  insole.  Two  inci- 
sions are  made,  the  inside  one  being  the 
same  as  in  the  welt  insoles.  The  outside  one, 
however,  is  different,  as  the  flange  is  cut 
off  square  instead  of  being  rolled  up.  This 
leaves  a  channel  which  begins  at  the  edge 
and  surface  of  the  sole  and  extends  in 
semicircular  form  to  the  abrupt  wall  of  the 
cut  in  the  sole,  which  forms  the  breast 
against  which  the  upper  is  to  be  sewed. 

After  the  soles  are  channeled,  they  are 
soaked  until  they  become  soft  enough  to 
roll  up  easily.  They  are  then  placed  on 
racks  and  kept  in  a  damp  room  until  needed. 

A  turn  shoe  is  hand  lasted  wrong  side  out. 
First  the  uppers  are  turned  with  the  lining 
outside,  then  the  last  is  inserted  and  also 
the  toe  boxing. 

The  sole  is  set  straight  on  the  la^t  and  is 

[153] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

tacked  firmly  to  it.  The  operator,  by  aid 
of  hand  pullers,  draws  the  upper  over  the 
sole  and  tacks  it  securely  from  a  point 
where  the  breast  of  the  heel  will  rest  to 
where  the  large  toe  will  extend,  and  then 
along  the  same  distance  on  the  other  side. 
The  toe  part  is  next  lasted  by  machinery, 
a  wire  being  fastened  at  one  side  and  run 
around  the  edge  holding  the  pulled-up 
parts  of  the  upper  which  has  been  stretched 
tightly  over  the  last. 

The  shoe  is  next  passed  over  to  the  Good- 
year inseamer  operator,  who  sews  the  upper 
to  the  sole,  the  needle  passing  down  through 
the  inside  channel,  through  the  sole  leather, 
out  through  the  square-cut  channel  and 
then  through  the  upper,  uniting  the  upper 
to  the  sole  with  the  chain  stitch.  In  fact, 
the  bottom  of  a  turn  shoe  at  this  time  looks 
exactly  like  the  bottom  of  a  welt,  with  the 
exception  that  the  turn  shoe  is  still  turned 
wrong  side  out.  The  nature  of  the  stitch 
is    the   same  —  a   waxed,    threaded   chain, 

[  154  ] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

with  two  rows  of  thread  on  the  outside  that 
loop  with  the  single  thread  in-  the  inside 
lip  of  the  insole.  The  shoe  is  sewed  only 
from  the  back  of  the  shank  to  the  toe,  the 
heel  part  still  being  loose. 

The  seam  is  now  trimmed  with  an  inseam 
trimmer,  a  machine  with  a  revolving,  jagged- 
edged  knife  that  saws  off  the  surplus  portions 
of  the  upper,  leaving  it  smooth  and  even 
with  the  sole.  The  tacks  are  all  pulled 
out  with  a  sort  of  a  nail  puller,  which  works 
rapidly  and  automatically. 

The  lasts  are  then  taken  out  and  the 
shoe  is  turned  right  side  out.  This  turning 
process  is  not  a  difficult  one,  but  it  is 
perhaps  the  most  interesting  operation  that 
the  layman  will  see  in  the  entire  factory. 
The  operation  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  a  rigid  iron  bar  set  slantwise  in  a  table. 
The  upper  is  turned  right  side  out  by  hand 
and  the  sole  is  rolled  right  side  out  by  means 
of  pressure  on  this  bar. 

After  this  turning  process,  which  twists 

[155] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

and  rolls  the  shoe  out  of  shape,  it  has  no 
semblance  of  its  final  form.  The  back  part 
of  the  sole  and  upper  are  still  loose,  the 
upper  being  fastened  from  the  shank  to 
the  toe. 

The  turn  shoe  must  be  "second"  lasted, 
and  the  inserting  of  the  last  is  no  easy  matter. 
A  contrivance  called  a  push  jack  assists 
the  operator  greatly.  He  uses  a  flat,  nar- 
row rod  to  smooth  out  the  lining,  and 
after  squeezing,  pushing,  and  smoothing, 
the  last  is  finally  made  to  fit  in  the  shoe. 
The  counter  is  placed  in  at  this  time,  the 
shank  piece  is  set  in  place,  and  the  shoe 
and  last  are  placed  on  a  jack  for  nailing. 
The  back  part  upper  is  now  stretched  tightly 
over  the  heel  part  of  the  last  by  means  of 
lasting  pullers,  and  is  tacked  down,  the 
nails  going  through  the  shank  piece  and 
clinching  against  the  anvil  heel  seat  of  the 
last.  This  operation  completes  the  lasting, 
the  shoe  now  having  a  form  exactly  like 
the  last  over  which  it  is  made. 

[  156  ] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

Workmen  now  level  the  bottoms  and 
form  the  shank  by  a  hand  method,  pre- 
paratory to  the  machine  leveling  process. 
The  shoe  is  still  wet  and  is  left  to  dry  on 
the  last  twenty-four  hours.  Then  it  is  run 
through  the  machine  called  the  "  leveler," 
which,  with  its  enormous  pressure,  forms 
the  sole  to  that  of  the  last.  The  shoes  are 
now  left  four  days  on  the  lasts,  to  dry 
thoroughly,  so  that  they  may  retain  their 
shape  permanently. 

The  putting  on  of  the  heel,  and  the 
various  finishing  processes  are  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  the  welt,  with  the 
exception  that  a  turn  sole  must  have  a 
sock  lining. 

Some  factories  use  a  grain  leather  sock 
lining,  which  is  pasted  in,  covering  up  the 
channels  of  the  sole  which  hold  the  stitches 
and  forming  a  smooth  surface  for  the  foot 
to  rest  upon. 

The  difference  between  a  McKay  and  a 
turn  shoe  may  be  told  by  the  fact  that  the 

[  157  ] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

stitching  on  the  inside  of  the  sole  is  much 
closer  to  the  edge  in  a  turn.  Another 
thing,  in  a  turn  shoe,  the  seam  connecting 
the  upper  and  the  outsole  can  be  seen. 

Nothing  is  likely  to  excel  the  turn  shoe 
for  lightness  and  flexibility,  since  the  method 
of  making,  whereby  the  sole  is  stitched 
directly  to  the  upper,  interposes  no  thick 
or  cumbersome  material.  Sole  leather  of 
good  quality  is  used.  In  fact,  the  sole 
would  have  to  be  not  only  strong,  but  thin 
and  light,  or  the  shoe  could  not  be  turned 
in  the  process  of  manufacture  without 
straining  it  and  getting  it  out  of  shape. 

History  of  the  Turn  Shoe 

History  states  that  prior  to  1845,  which 
marked  the  date  of  the  introduction  of 
shoe  machinery,  most  of  the  shoes  were 
sewed  by  hand,  the  lighter  ones  turned 
and  the  heavier  ones  welted.  In  fact,  the 
early  factories  that  began  to  spring  up  in 

[158] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

New  England  about  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  were  merely  cutting  rooms  and 
places  for  storing  the  lasts  and  stock. 

Here  the  uppers,  soles,  and  linings  were 
cut  by  hand  and  then  given  out  to  people 
in  the  vicinity,  mostly  farmers  and  fishermen, 
to  be  stitched  together  and  paid  for  at  so 
much  a  dozen.  Such  was  the  beginning  of 
the  shoe  industry  in  New  England.  Hun- 
dreds of  families  added  to  their  resources 
in  this  way,  the  women  doing  the  lighter 
work  and  the  men  the  heavier. 

In  fishing  communities,  where  men  were 
away  most  of  the  time  in  their  boats, 
their  wives  and  daughters,  who  stayed  at 
home,  undertook  the  lighter  grades  of 
shoemaking  —  the  turn  process.  This  was 
the  case  in  the  "North  Shore"  towns  like 
Lynn,  Haverhill,  and  Marblehead,  and  these 
to-day,  keeping  to  the  old  traditions,  are  the 
great  centers  for  the  finer  turn-grades  of 
shoemaking,  whereas  the  "South  Shore" 
towns,  like  Brockton,  Whitman,  Abington, 

[159] 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

Rockland,  and  the  Weymouths,  with  the 
men  at  home  all  the  year,  came  to  make  a 
specialty  of  shoes  for  men,  and  absorbed 
the  heavier  part  of  the  growing  industry. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  Goodyear 
turn  machine,  however,  the  handwork  was 
gradually  done  away  with,  although  more 
handwork  is  done  in  the  turn  process  than 
in  either  the  McKay  or  welt  process. 

Standard  Screw  Shoemaking 

Many  good  qualities  of  heavy  shoes  are 
made  by  the  standard  screw  method,  which 
differs  from  the  McKay  method  by  having 
the  outsole  and  insole  fastened  together 
with  a  double-threaded  wire,  which  is 
screwed  through  and  cut  off  by  the  machine 
the  instant  it  reaches  the  inside  of  the  shoe. 

A  pegged  shoe  is  made  in  much  the  same 
way  as  the  standard  screw,  except  that 
wooden  pegs  are  used  instead  of  wire  to 
fasten  the  sole  together. 

[160] 


/     CHAIViNEL  \ 


LASTING  TACK. 
^,5rANDARD  SCREW. 


i  CLINCHING  POINT  OF 
LASTING  TACK. 


Cross  Section  of  Standard  Screwed  Shoe. 


McKAY  AND  TURNED  SHOES 

The  nailed  method  of  shoemaking  con- 
sists in  nailing  the  soles  together  around  the 
edge.  It  is  used  principally  for  heavy, 
cheap  shoes. 


[161] 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 

OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING  AND  REPAIRING 

THE  old-fashioned  shoemaker  formerly 
made  shoes  by  hand  as  follows :  — 
A  last,  which  is  a  wooden  model  of  a 
foot,  was  used,  and  pieces  of  leather  were 
pasted  here  and  there  on  it  so  as  to  build 
up  a  model  conforming  to  the  measurements 
of  the  foot.  Then  paper  patterns  of  the 
upper  leather  were  made  from  the  last,  and 
from  these  the  upper  leathers  were  cut  out 
of  tanned  calfskins  and  sewed  together. 

The  leather  for  the  soles  was  cut  out  of 
tanned  ox  or  steer  hide,  the  pieces  being 
the  insole,  the  outsole,  and  the  lifts  of 
the  heel.  The  inner  soles  were  made  of 
softer  leather.  Sometimes  split  sole  leathers 
were  used  for  uppers.  The  shoemaker 
then   softened   the   leather   by   steeping   it 

[  162  ] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

in  water,  until  it  was  pliable  and  at  the 
same  time  firm,  and  would  cut  like  cheese. 

The  insoles  were  attached  to  the  bottom 
of  a  pair  of  wooden  lasts,  and  the  wet 
leather  fastened  on  with  lasting  tacks  so 
as  to  mold  it  to  the  last.  When  it  was 
dry,  the  shoemaker  with  pincers  drew  the 
leather  out  until  it  had  taken  the  exact 
form  of  the  bottom  of  the  last.  Then  he 
rounded  the  soles  by  paring  down  the  edges 
close  to  the  last,  and  formed  around  these 
edges  a  small  channel  or  feather  cut  or  slit 
about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  the  leather. 

Next  he  pierced  the  insoles  all  around 
with  a  bent  awl,  which  "bit"  into,  but  not 
through,  the  leather,  and  came  out  at  the 
channel  or  feather  edge.  The  boots  were 
then  lasted  by  placing  the  uppers  on  the 
lasts,  drawing  the  edges  by  means  of 
pincers  tightly  round  the  edge  of  the  insoles. 
Then  they  were  fastened  in  portions  with 
lasting  tacks.  Lasting  was  considered  a 
very   important   operation,   for   unless   the 

[163] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

upper  was  drawn  smoothly  and  equally 
over  the  last,  leaving  neither  a  crease  nor 
wrinkle,  the  form  would  be  a  failure.  A 
band  of  flexible  leather  about  an  inch  wide, 
with  one  edge  pared,  was  then  placed  in 
position  around  the  sides  of  the  shoes,  up 
to  the  heel  or  seat,  and  the  maker  proceeded 
to  "inseam,"  by  passing  his  awl  through 
the  holes,  already  made  in  the  insole, 
catching  with  it  the  edge  of  the  upper  and 
the  thin  edge  of  the  welt,  and  sewing  all 
three  together  in  one  flat  seam,  with  a 
waxed  thread. 

The  threads  which  shoemakers  use  are 
called  "ends,"  and  are  made  of  two  or 
more  strands  of  small  flaxen  threads.  The 
shoemaker  makes  his  own  waxed  thread  as 
follows :  — 

He  holds  the  main  part  of  the  thread 
from  the  spool,  in  his  left  hand,  holding  it 
firmly  —  where  he  wants  to  break  it  — 
between  the  first  finger  and  thumb,  so 
that  it  will  not  turn   beyond  that  point. 

[  164  ] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

Then  with  the  left  hand,  he  lays  the  end 
of  the  flax  on  the  knee  and  rolls  it  from 
him.  This  will  cause  the  small  fibers  that 
compose  the  thread  to  separate  —  thus 
enabling  him  to  break  it  easily.  When 
the  fibers  separate,  he  gives  the  thread  a 
light,  quick  turn,  which  causes  it  to  break. 
As  the  thread  breaks  he  pulls  it  apart 
gradually,  so  that  the  fibers  will  taper. 
Then  he  places  the  threads  together,  one 
just  behind  the  other,  so  that  the  end  will 
have  a  very  fine  point.  He  rolls  the  end 
and  allows  it  to  turn  between  the  fingers 
of  the  left  hand.  After  it  has  been  rolled 
and  twisted,  it  is  waxed  by  drawing  the 
thread  through  a  piece  of  wax. 

The  fine  ends  are  waxed  to  a  point.  A 
bristle  is  fastened  on  in  the  following 
manner:  the  head  of  the  bristle  is  held  in 
the  left  hand,  and  the  portion  to  which  the 
thread  is  to  be  fastened  is  waxed;  then  the 
thread  and  bristle  are  twisted  together.  A 
hole  is  made  in  the  thread  and  the  bristle 

[165] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

pulled  through  and  fastened.  After  the 
threads  are  fastened,  the  heads  of  the  bristle 
are  cut  off,  and  the  ends  sandpapered. 

The  wax  thread  or  "end,"  as  it  is  called, 
should  never  be  made  longer  than  is  neces- 
sary to  sew  a  shoe.  Experience  shows  that 
if  a  portion  of  an  end  left  after  sewing  one 
shoe  is  used  on  the  second  shoe,  it  is  never 
as  strong  as  a  new  end.  The  thread  grows 
weaker  and  weaker  as  it  is  used.  When 
the  thread  is  well  waxed,  it  is  cemented  to 
the  shoe. 

After  the  shoe  is  sewed,  the  shoemaker 
pares  off  inequalities  and  levels  the  bottoms, 
by  filling  up  the  depressed  part  in  the 
center  with  pieces  of  tarred  felt.  The 
shoes  are  now  ready  for  the  outsoles. 
The  fibers  of  the  leather  to  be  used  for 
the  soles  are  thoroughly  condensed  by 
hammering  on  the  lapstone.  Then  they 
are  fastened  through  the  insole  with  steel 
tacks,  their  sides  are  pared,  and  a  narrow 
channel  is  cut  round  their  edges.     Through 

[166] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

this  channel  they  are  stitched  to  the  welt, 
about  twelve  stitches  of  strong,  waxed 
thread  being  made  to  the  inch.  The  soles 
are  next  hammered  into  shape;  the  heel 
lifts  are  put  on  and  attached  with  wooden 
pegs.  Then  they  are  sewed  through  the 
stitches  of  the  insoles ;  and  the  top  pieces, 
similar  to  the  outsoles,  are  put  on  and 
nailed  down  to  the  lifts. 

The  finishing  operations  of  the  shoe 
include  smoothing  the  edges  of  the  heel, 
paring,  rasping,  scraping,  smoothing,  black- 
ing, and  burnishing  the  edges  of  the 
soles,  withdrawing  the  lasts,  and  cleaning 
out  any  pegs  which  may  have  pierced 
through  the  inner  sole.  There  are  numer- 
ous minor  operations  connected  with  for- 
warding and  finishing  in  various  materials, 
such  as  punching  holes,  inserting  eyelets,  etc. 

How  Shoes  are  Repaired 

Before  one  can  understand  how  shoes  are 
repaired,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  difler- 

[167] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

ence  between  the  inside  and  outside  of  a 
shoe. 

The  last  is  divided  into  four  parts,  viz. 
toe,  ball,  shank,  and  heel. 

Diagram  No.  1  shows  these  parts  and 
their  shapes. 

Diagram  No.  2  shows  the  length  of  the 
inside  of  the  divisions  as  compared  with 
those  of  the  outside.  Notice  the  long 
shank  and  short  ball. 

Diagram  No.  3  shows  the  outside  of  the  divi- 
sions and  the  effect  they  have  upon  the  shape 
of  the  shoe.     See  short  shank  and  long  ball. 

Always  remember  that  the  ball  of  a  shoe 
is  longer  on  the  outside,  having  a  short 
shank.  The  ball  is  shorter  on  the  inside, 
having  a  long  shank.  Compare  outside 
and  inside  diagrams  Nos.  2  and  3. 

Shoe  Repairing 

The  first  operation  in  half  soling  a  shoe  is 
to  cut  off  the  old  portion  from  "a"  to  "c" 
as  shown  on  diagram  No.  1.     The  shoe  is 

[168] 


How  a  Side  of  Leather  is  shaped  and  divided  as  to  QuaHty. 

See  page  5. 


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HEEL 

OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAEING 

placed  in  different  positions  and  corrected 
in  every  way  before  putting  on  the  new  sole. 
It  is  generally  better  to  wet  the  shoe  in 
order  to  put  it  in  shape. 

The  leather  is  skived  thin  and  accurate 
enough  to  make  a  neat,  comfortable  joint, 
and  yet  thick  enough  for  the  nails  to  hold. 

Then  the  filling  is  added  before  placing 
on  the  sole.  The  sole  is  trimmed  and  a 
guide  line  drawn  around  the  edge,  so  that 
the  nails  may  be  properly  arranged. 

Finishing  the  sole  is  an  important  part. 
If  everything  else  is  properly  done,  this 
part  becomes  comparatively  easy.  See  that 
all  nails  are  clinched.  With  a  level  bottom, 
smooth  joints  and  edges,  the  shoe  can  be 
made  to  look  like  a  new  shoe  and  yet  feel 
like  an  old  one. 

On  account  of  the  heel  being  more  directly 
under  the  body  and  the  first  part  to  strike 
the  ground,  it  generally  wears  out  first. 
For  this  reason  in  repairing  a  heel  great 
care    must    be    taken    to    see    that    good 

[  169  ] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

leather  and  solid  work  are  put  into  it. 
Pull  off  the  worn  top  piece  and  see  that 
what  is  left  is  hammered  down  solidly. 
Next  split  a  piece  of  solid,  easy-cutting, 
scrap  sole  leather,  so  that  two  pieces  can 
be  made  out  of  one.  Put  them  on  the 
shoe  and  fasten  them  on  well,  piece  by 
piece,  with  tacks.  See  that  the  heel  is 
level  before  putting  on  the  top  piece. 
(If  necessary,  a  small  piece  may  be  put 
under  the  top  piece.)  After  it  is  level, 
put  on  top  piece,  trim  in  shape,  then  draw 
guide  line  and  nail  down.  The  nails  are 
placed  thicker  on  the  side  that  is  worn 
down  most,  to  protect  the  heel.  The  heel 
is  next  rasped,  and  smoothed  with  a  buffer 
and  sandpaper.  When  finished,  it  should 
set  level. 

Modern  Method  of  Repairing  Shoes 

As  the  shoemaking  industry  has  become 
more  and  more  perfect,  there  has  been  an 
increasing  interest  taken  in  shoe  repairing. 

[170] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

A  medium-priced  shoe  as  it  is  made  to-day 
may  often  be  in  good  enough  condition  to 
be  heeled  and  soled  a  couple  of  times. 
Hence,  although  in  the  past  many  shoe 
stores  and  departments  have  had  their 
shoe  repairing  done  by  outside  shops,  the 
tendency  to-day  is  for  every  shoe  store 
to  have  its  own  repair  department.  This 
method  has  resulted  largely  from  the 
development  of  machinery  for  shoe  repair- 
ing, which  is  revolutionizing  the  business 
to  such  an  extent  that  in  a  few  years 
repairing  by  hand  will  be  among  the  lost 
arts.  With  the  new  inventions  for  restoring 
upper  leather,  and  the  improvement  of 
machinery  for  shoe  repairing,  repair  depart- 
ments will  very  soon  be  but  little  short 
of  miniature  factories. 

The  machinery  ordinarily  used  consists 
of  the  Goodyear  stitcher,  used  for  attaching 
soles  to  Goodyear  welts  by  the  lock-stitch 
method,  just  as  in  shoe  factories  making 
Goodyear    welt    shoes.     Then    there    is    a 

[171] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

heel  trimmer,  a  bottom  finisher,  consisting 
of  a  rapidly  revolving  roll  covered  with 
coarse  and  fine  sandpaper,  and  an  opera 
heel  builder  for  forming  concave  heels. 
There  are  two  wheels  used  for  tan  and 
white  heel  work,  one  heel  being  covered 
with  a  white  cloth,  and  the  other  with  a 
coarse  brush.  Adjoining  these  are  usually 
the  shank  and  heel  finisher,  —  capable  of 
smoothing  and  highly  polishing  a  shank  or 
heel  in  about  a  dozen  seconds,  —  the  bottom 
finisher,  that  grinds  and  smooths  down  the 
new  sole,  and  a  machine  used  for  rubbing 
off  dirt  before  the  shoe  is  finished,  consisting 
of  a  heavy  horsehair  brush.  Another  useful 
part  of  the  equipment  is  an  edge  setter, 
which  is  also  identical  with  the  one  used  in 
factories.  The  shoe  stitching  machines 
and  the  parts  used  in  finishing  are  all 
operated  on  one  long  shaft,  rapidly  revolved 
by  the  aid  of  a  motor.  It  is  a  fact  that  a 
shoe  may  be  actually  soled  and  heeled  in 
less  than  six  minutes. 

[172] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

Five  or  six  men  are  usually  employed  in 
the  repair  department  of  a  large  establish- 
ment. When  the  customer's  shoes  are 
brought  in,  one  of  these  men  cuts  off  the 
old  sole  and  traces  an  outline  of  the  new 
sole  on  a  block  of  the  very  best  oak  leather. 
After  these  are  cut  out  by  hand  in  rough 
form,  they  are  soaked  in  water  and  chan- 
neled; that  is  to  say,  a  part  of  the  sole  is 
turned  up  in  which  the  stitches  are  to  be 
run.  A  second  man,  by  the  use  of  the 
Goodyear  stitcher,  joins  the  sole  and  welt 
together  with  a  very  strong  and  tightly 
drawn  lock  stitch.  This  is  a  large  machine 
with  a  curved,  barbed  needle  and  awl,  and 
a  shuttle  which  sews  through  an  inch  of 
leather  with  the  greatest  ease  and  speed. 
There  are  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to 
two  hundred  stitches  in  each  shoe;  more- 
over, every  one  of  them  is  locked  with 
heavy  wax  thread,  so  that  there  is  no  chance 
of  their  ever  giving  away.  If  one  stitch 
should    break,    the    other    stitches    would 

[  173  ] 


OLD-FASfflONED  SHOEMAEING 

remain  intact,  as  they  are  all  independent 
of  each  other.  Both  soles  are  stitched  on 
in  a  little  over  half  a  minute  without 
breaking  a  thread  or  stopping  the  machine. 

A  coating  of  rubber  cement  is  now  placed 
in  the  edges  of  the  outsole,  and  the  lip  of 
the  channel  is  smoothed  down  so  that  the 
stitches  are  entirely  hidden  when  looking  at 
the  bottom  of  the  shoe.  The  edge  trim- 
ming is  done  next  with  the  aid  of  a  rapidly  re- 
volving wheel,  which  trims  the  edges  square 
and  true  in  about  forty  seconds.  After  this, 
the  shank  is  finished  on  a  rapidly  revolving 
wheel  covered  with  emery  cloth. 

Bottom  finishing  is  the  next  step.  This 
is  done  on  a  machine  having  two  long 
cylinders,  one  covered  with  fine  and  the 
other  with  coarse  sandpaper.  These  cylin- 
ders revolve  rapidly,  and  the  operator  uses 
the  coarse  sandpaper  for  scouring  the  dirt 
and  old  finish  off  the  leather,  and  the 
fine  sandpaper  for  finishing  the  sole  as 
smooth  as  that  of  any  new  shoe. 

[174] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

The  brushing  in  or  smoothing  is  next 
done  by  the  horsehair  brush  we  have  men- 
tioned before.  A  preparation  called  Lewis's 
rival  bottom  polish  —  a  sort  of  white  wax  — 
is  placed  on  the  brush  machine.  The 
brush  now  smooths  the  surface  of  the  sole, 
filling  in  all  small  holes  with  wax  and  leaving 
the  sole  absolutely  perfect.  Finally,  the 
shoe  is  placed  against  a  rapidly  revolving 
brush  which  finishes  the  uppers  with  a 
luster  that  would  make  any  ordinary  boot- 
black green  with  envy.  Another  operation 
that  fully  completes  the  process  is  the 
hardening  of  the  edges  with  hot  steel, 
which  ends  in  producing  an  edge  that  is  as 
hard  as  iron.  When  it  is  polished  with  a 
black  dye,  it  looks  exactly  like  a  new  sole. 

A  few  words  are  necessary  with  regard 
to  the  heel.  The  old  heel  having  been 
removed,  several  lifts  of  new  leather  in 
rough  form  are  tacked  on.  The  shoe  is 
then  taken  to  the  heel  trimmer  and  is 
formed  correctly  and  then  smoothed  down 

[175] 


OLD-FASHIONED  SHOEMAKING 

to  a  brilliant  surface  on  the  finely  covered 
revolving  wheel.  In  a  few  seconds  it  is 
stained,  smoothed,  and  polished.  In  less 
than  six  minutes  the  shoe  is  ready  for  the 
customer. 


[176] 


CHAPTER  NINE 

LEATHER   AND    SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

Assembling.  Includes  the  following  op- 
erations :  tacking  the  insole  to  the  last, 
putting  in  the  box  and  counter  of  the  shoe, 
and  putting  the  upper  of  the  shoe  on  the 
last. 

Backstay.  A  term  used  to  denote  a 
strip  of  leather  covering  and  strengthening 
the  back  seam  of  a  shoe.  English  backstay 
means  the  strip  of  leather  that  meets  the 
quarters  on  each  side  and  is  sewed  to  them, 
forming  the  lower  part  of  the  shoe.  Cali- 
fornia backstay  is  a  term  applied  to  piping 
caught  in  the  back  seam. 

Back  Strap.  The  strap  by  which  the 
shoe  is  pulled  on  the  foot. 

Bal.  An  abbreviation  of  the  word 
"Balmoral"    and     means     either     men's, 

[177] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

women's,  or  children's  front  lace  shoe 
of  medium  height,  as  distinguished  from 
one  that  is  adjusted  to  the  ankle  by  but- 
tons, buckles,  rubber  goring,  etc. 

Ball.  Refers  to  the  ball  of  the  foot  — 
the  fleshy  part  of  the  bottom  of  the  foot, 
back  of  the  toes. 

Beading.  Means  folding  in  the  edges 
of  the  upper  leather  instead  of  leaving 
them  raw,  or  wheeling  any  impression 
around  the  sole  to  the  heel.  It  is  called 
seat  wheeling  in  many  shoe  factory  rooms. 

Beating  Out.  The  same  as  leveling. 
It  is  the  term  used  in  turn-shoe  work. 

Bellows  Tongue.  A  broad  tongue 
sewed  to  the  sides  of  the  top,  seen  in  water- 
proof and  some  working  shoes. 

Belting.  The  term  applied  to  the  usual 
back  tanned  cowhide,  used  in  various  thick- 
nesses for  machinery  belts. 

Between  Substance.  That  part  of  the 
sole  that  holds  the  stitch. 

Blackball.     A  mass  of  grease  and  lamp- 

[178] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

black,  formerly  used  by  shoemakers  on 
edges  of  heels  and  soles ;  sometimes  called 
"cobbler's  botch." 

Blacking  the  Edge.  Blacking  or  dye- 
ing edge  of  sole,  welt,  or  that  part  of  the 
edge  which  cannot  be  blacked  so  well  in 
the  making  room. 

Blocking.  The  cutting  or  chopping 
of  a  sole  in  such  a  form  or  shape  that  it 
can  be  rounded. 

Bloom.  A  term  often  applied  to  the 
grayish  white  deposit  that  gathers  on  shoes 
in  stock.     It  can  be  wiped  off  readily. 

Blucher.  The  name  of  a  shoe  or  half 
boot,  originated  by  Field  Marshal  Blucher 
of  the  Prussian  Army,  in  the  time  of 
Napoleon  I.  It  became  very  popular  and 
has  since  received  occasional  favor,  being 
used  with  high  tops  as  a  sporting  or  hunting 
boot.  Its  distinguishing  feature  is  the 
extension  forward  of  the  quarters  to  lace 
across  the  tongue,  which  may  be  an  exten- 
sion upward  of  the  vamp. 

[179] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

Boot.  A  term  used  (especially  abroad) 
to  designate  women's  high-cut  shoes.  In 
this  country  it  applies  only  to  high  or 
topped  footwear,  usually  made  with  the 
tops  stiff  and  solid.  It  is  sometimes  laced, 
as  in  hunting  boots. 

Bootee.  Leather  legging  extending  be- 
tween knee  and  ankle,  usually  of  Russian 
calf,  —  a  riding  boot  originating  with  the 
English. 

Bottom  Filling.  The  filling  that  goes 
in  the  low  space  on  the  bottom  in  the  fore- 
part of  the  shoe.  It  is  either  ground  cork, 
tarred  felt,  or  other  filler. 

Bottom  Scouring.  Sandpapering  the 
parts  of  the  sole,  except  the  heel. 

Boxing.  A  term  used  to  designate  the 
stiffening  material  placed  in  the  toe  of  a 
shoe  to  support  it  and  retain  the  shape; 
such  as  leather,  composition  of  leather  and 
paper,  wire  net,  drilling  (a  cotton  fabric) 
stiffened  with  shellac,  etc. 

Box    Calf.     A    well-known    proprietary 

[180] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

leather  having  a  grain  of  rectangularly 
crossed  lines. 

Box  Toe.  Used  to  hold  up  the  toe  of 
the  shoe  so  as  to  retain  the  shape.  It  is 
generally  of  sole  leather,  but  often  made  of 
canvas  or  other  material  and  stiffened  with 
shellac  or  gum. 

Breaking  the  Sole.  Molding  the  sole 
so  as  to  fit  the  spring  better. 

Brogan.  A  heavy  pegged  or  nailed  work 
shoe,  medium  cut  in  height. 

Brushing.  The  final  finish  of  the  top 
edge,  heel,  and  bottom,  by  means  of  a 
brush. 

Buckskin.  A  soft  leather,  generally 
yellow  or  grayish  in  color.  One  way  of 
preparing  it  is  by  treating  deerskins  in  oil. 

Buff.  A  split  side  leather,  coarser  than 
glove  grain,  but  otherwise  similar.  It  is 
used  for  cheaper  grades  of  shoes,  princi- 
pally for  men. 

Buffing.    The  same  as  bottom  scouring. 

Cabaretta.      a    tanned     sheepskin     of 

[181] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

superior  finish  used  for  shoe  stock.  There 
are  sheep  with  wool  not  far  removed  from 
hair  in  texture,  which  produce  a  skin  of 
greater  tenacity  and  finish  than  the  ordi- 
nary sheep. 

Cack.  A  sole  leather  bottom  without 
a  heel.     An  infant's  shoe  is  called  a  cack. 

Calfskins.  Skins  of  meat  cattle  of  all 
kinds,  weighing  up  to  fifteen  pounds,  are 
usually  included  in  this  term.  They  make 
a  strong  and  pliable  leather.  Calfskins 
were  formerly  finished  with  wax  and  oil 
on  the  fiesh  side,  but  can  now  be  made  so 
as  to  be  finished  on  the  "  grain,"  which  is 
the  hair  side  of  the  skin. 

Cap.     a  term  meaning  the  same  as  tip. 

Carton.  A  cardboard  box  intended  for 
one  pair  of  shoes. 

Cementing.  This  is  the  operation  of 
placing  cement  on  the  outsole  and  the 
bottom  of  the  welt  shoe  so  that  the  outsole 
is  held  to  the  shoe  by  the  cement. 

Chamois.     A  leather  made  from  the  skins 

[182] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

of  chamois,  calves,  deer,  goats,  sheep,  and 
spHt  hides  of  other  animals. 

Channeling.  Cutting  into  the  sole  in 
such  a  way  that  the  thread  or  stitching  is 
away  from  the  surface.  In  the  outsole 
department  it  means  preparing  a  place  for 
the  stitch.  In  insoles  and  turn  soles,  chan- 
neling is  done  so  that  soles  are  prepared  to 
hold  the  stitching. 

Channel  Screwed.  A  process  by  which 
the  sole  is  fastened  to  the  uppers.  After  a 
channel  is  cut  and  laid  over  on  the  outside 
of  the  outsole,  the  outsole  and  insole  are 
fastened  together,  holding  the  upper  and 
lining  between  them  by  means  of  wire 
screws,  which  are  fastened  in  this  channel. 
The  skived  part  is  then  smoothed  down 
over  the  heads  of  the  screws,  entirely 
covering  them  from  sight,  and  preventing 
the  screws  from  easily  working  up  into  the 
foot. 

Channel  Stitched.  A  method  of  fasten- 
ing soles  to  the  uppers,  either  by  McKay 

[  183  ] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

or  welt  process,  in  which  a  portion  of  the 
sole's  outer  side  is  channeled  into,  and  the 
stitches  afterwards  covered  on  the  lower 
side  by  the  lip  of  this  channel. 

Channel  Turning.  Turning  a  lip  or 
flap  of  sole  leather  (called  channel),  so  that 
the  stitching  can  be  done  in  the  proper 
place;  or  it  may  mean  turning  up  the  flap 
or  lip  of  the  channel,  that  is,  the  part  that 
is  to  cover  the  stitch. 

Checking.  A  term  applied  to  the  edges 
of  heels  or  soles  that  have  cracked,  or  have 
been  injured  in  process  of  construction. 

Cleaning  Inside.     Cleaning  the  lining. 

Cleaning  Nails.  Scraping  the  blacking 
off  the  tops  of  the  heel  slugs. 

Cleaning  Shoes.  Removing  dirt,  wax, 
cement,  etc.,  from  them. 

Clicking.  Cutting   the  uppers  of   shoes. 

Closing.  Putting  two  or  more  pieces 
together. 

Closing  On.  Stitching  the  lining  and 
outside  together. 

[  184  ] 


LEATHER  AND   SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

Colonial.  A  name  given  to  a  woman's 
low  shoe,  with  vamp  extended  into  a  flaring 
tongue,  with  a  large,  ornamental  buckle 
across  the  instep.  The  buckle  and  tongue 
are  the  distinctive  features  of  the  shoe, 
whether  the  shoe  fastens  with  a  lace  or 
strap. 

CoLTSKiN.  Coltskin  has  been  brought 
into  general  use  in  shoemaking  within  the 
past  few  years.  The  skin  of  a  colt  is  thin 
enough  to  use  like  calfskin  in  its  entirety, 
with  such  shaving  as  is  given  all  hides  in 
tanning.  Coltskin  makes  a  firm  basis 
needed  for  patent  leather,  and  has  been 
much  used  in  recent  years  for  this  purpose. 
Russia  is  the  chief  source  of  supply. 

Combination  Last.  One  with  a  differ- 
ent width  instep  from  the  ball.  It  may  be 
one  or  two  widths'  difference,  such  as  the 
D  ball  with  a  B  instep.  Combination 
lasts  are  generally  used  in  fitting  low 
insteps. 

Composition.     A   term  used  to   denote 

[185] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

the  small  scraps  that  accumulate  about 
tanneries  and  factories,  which  are  ground 
up  and  mixed  with  a  paste  or  a  kind  of 
cement,  and  flattened  into  sheets  which 
are  used  as  insoles,  and  in  other  parts,  in 
various  grades  of  shoes,  where  wear  is  not 
excessive. 

Congress  Gaiter.  A  shoe  designed 
especially  for  comfort,  with  rubber  goring 
in  the  sides  which  adjusts  it  to  the  ankle, 
instead  of  laces,  and  sometimes  made  with 
lace  front  to  imitate  a  regular  shoe. 

Cordovan.  Originally  a  Spanish  leather 
made  from  horsehide.  The  Spaniards  were, 
for  a  great  many  centuries,  the  best  leather 
makers.  The  term  is  applied  to  a  grain 
leather  from  the  best  and  strongest  part  of 
a  horsehide. 

Counter.  The  stiffening  in  the  back 
part  of  a  shoe,  often  called  stiffening,  to 
support  the  outer  leather  and  prevent  the 
shoe  from  "running  over"  at  the  heel.  It 
is  made  either  of  sole  leather,  shaved  thin 

[186] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

on  the  edge  and  shaped  by  machinery,  as 
in  the  best  shoes,  or  composition  or  paper, 
in  cheap  shoes.  Metal  is  occasionally  used 
on  the  outside  of  the  shoes  in  heavy  goods 
for  miners  and  furnacemen. 

Coupon  Tag.  A  tag  from  which  a 
coupon  is  cut  for  every  operation.  Opera- 
tives hold  part  of  the  coupon  and  the 
holders  of  the  coupons  are  paid  for  the 
part  named. 

Cowhide.  Refers  to  hides  of  cattle, 
heavier  than  kips,  which  run  up  to  twenty- 
five  pounds  each. 

Creasing  Vamp.  Making  hollow  grooves 
across  the  front  of  the  vamp  to  add  to  its 
looks. 

Creedmore.  A  man's  heavy  lace  shoe, 
with  gusset,  blucher  cut. 

Creole.  A  heavy  congress  work  shoe. 
This  shoe,  the  creedmore,  and  brogans  are 
usually  made  of  oil  grains,  kip,  or  split 
leather,     sometimes      pegged,     sometimes 

"stitched  down." 

[187] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAEING   TERMS 

Crimping.  Shaping  any  part  of  the 
upper  so  that  it  will  conform  to  the  last 
better. 

Cushion  Sole.     An  elastic  inner  sole. 

Cut-off  Vamp.  One  cut  off  at  tip  for 
economy  when  tip  is  to  be  covered  by  a  cap. 

DiEiNG.  Cutting  soles  to  fit  the  last, 
outsoles,  insoles,  heel  lifts,  counters,  or 
half  soles,  with  a  machine  and  a  die. 

DoM  Pedro.  A  heavy,  one-buckle  shoe, 
with  gusset  or  bellows  tongue.  Originally 
it  was  a  patent  name  for  certain  shoes  made 
of  fine  material,  but  is  now  applied  to  cheap 
grades. 

DoNGOLA.  A  heavy,  plump  goatskin, 
tanned  with  a  semibright  finish. 

Dressing.  A  process  for  giving  the 
upper  its  original  finish  by  means  of  liquid 
put  on  with  sponge. 

Edge  Setting.  The  finishing  edge  of 
the  sole,  —  polishing  it. 

Edge  Trimming.     Trimming  the  edge  of 
a  sole  smoothly  to  conform  to  last. 

[188] 


LEATHER   AND    SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

Enamel.  Leather  that  is  given  a  shiny 
finish  on  the  grain  side.  The  process  is 
similar  to  that  of  patent  leather,  only  that 
patent  leather  is  finished  on  the  flesh  side, 
or  the  surface  of  the  split. 

Eyelet.  A  small  ring  of  metal,  etc., 
placed  in  the  holes  for  lacing;  the  eyelet 
holes  are  sometimes  worked  with  thread 
like  a  bottonhole. 

Eyeletting.     Putting  on  eyelets. 

Facing.  The  bleached  calf  or  sheep- 
skin used  around  the  top  of  the  shoe,  and 
down  the  eyelet  row  and  inside  of  the 
upper. 

Fair  Stitch.  Term  applied  to  the  stitch- 
ing that  shows  around  the  outer  edge  of 
the  sole,  to  give  the  McKay  shoe  the  appear- 
ance of  a  welt  shoe. 

Faking.  Putting  a  gloss  on  any  part 
of  the  bottom  of  the  shoe. 

Findings.  The  small  parts  of  a  shoe, 
such  as  blacking,  cement,  nails,  wax,  tacks, 
thread,  etc. 

[189] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

Flap,  Lip,  and  Shoulder.  Terms  used 
in  connection  with  the  channel  or  with  the 
operation  of  sewing. 

Follower.  Any  last  or  form  put  in  a 
shoe  from  which  the  original  last  has  been 
pulled. 

Forepart  Finishing.  The  staining  and 
polishing  of  the  forepart  of  the  shoe. 

Form.  A  term  applied  to  a  filler  last. 
It  may  be  of  wood,  papier-mache,  leather 
board,  or  any  similar  material,  and  is 
used  to  enhance  the  appearance  of  sample 
shoes,  in  salesmen's  lines  or  in  window 
displays. 

Foxed.  Having  the  lower  part  of  the 
quarter  a  separate  piece  of  leather  or 
covered  by  an  extra  piece;  " slipper  foxed " 
is  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  women's 
full  vamp  shoes. 

Foxing.  The  name  applied  to  that  part 
of  the  upper  that  extends  from  the  sole  to 
the  laces  in  front,  and  to  about  the  height 
of    the   counter    in    the    back;     being    the 

[190] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

length  of  the  upper.  It  may  be  in  one  or 
more  pieces  and  is  often  cut  down  to  the 
shank  in  circular  form. 

Frizzing.  A  process  to  which  chamois 
and  wash  leather  are  subjected,  after  the 
skins  are  unhaired,  scraped,  "  fleshed,"  and 
raised.  It  consists  in  rubbing  the  skins 
with  pumice  stone  or  a  blunt  knife  till  the 
appearance  of  the  grain  is  entirely  removed. 

Front.  A  term  used  for  part  of  a  con- 
gress toe. 

Gaiter.  A  term  usually  applied  to  a  sep- 
arate ankle  covering  or  to  a  congress  shoe. 

Gemming.  The  operation  of  making  gem 
insoles. 

Gem  Insoles.  An  insole  for  welt  shoes 
of  leather. 

Glazed  Kid.     See  Kid. 

Glove  Grain.  A  light,  soft-finished, 
split  leather,  for  women's  or  children's 
shoes  or  topping. 

Goatskin.     See  Kid. 

Goodyear  Welt.     A  term  used  to  de- 

[191] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

note  the  process  of  attaching  the  sole  to 
the  upper  of  a  shoe  by  means  of  a  nar- 
row strip  of  leather  called  a  welt. 

Gore.  A  rubber  elastic  used  in  a  con- 
gress shoe.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  long, 
wedge-shaped  piece  of  leather  set  in  an 
upper  to  widen  it. 

Grading.  The  sorting  of  outsoles  and 
half  soles  to  get  uniform  weight  in  edges  of 
finished  shoes. 

Half  Sole.  Half  of  a  complete  sole 
used  in  forepart  of   bottom  under   outsole. 

Harness  Leather.  Similar  to  belting, 
and  is  made  from  hides  heavier  than  kips. 

Heel.  Made  of  layers  of  leather  or  wood 
called  liftings,  and  attached  to  rear  part 
of  shoe  (heel  seat).  There  are  different 
varieties  of  heels.  The  French  heel  is  an 
extremely  high  heel  with  a  curved  outline 
in  back  and  front  (breast) .  It  is  sometimes 
made  of  wood  covered  with  leather,  with 
thicknesses  of  sole  leather,  or  all  sole  leather. 
The   Cuban  heel   is  a   high,  straight  heel, 

[  192  ] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

without  the  curve  of  the  French  or  "Louis 
XV"  heel.  MiHtary  heel  is  a  straight  heel 
not  as  high  as  the  Cuban.  A  spring  heel  is 
a  low  heel  formed  by  extending  back  the 
outside  of  the  shoe  to  the  heel,  with  a  slip 
inserted  between  the  outsole  and  heel  slat. 
Wedge  heel  is  somewhat  similar  to  a  spring 
heel,  except  that  a  wedge-shaped  lift  is 
tacked  on  the  outside  instead  of  a  slit. 
Slugging  heels  is  the  process  of  affixing  the 
made-up  heel  by  one  operation  of  the 
machine. 

Heel  Finishing.  Blacking  and  poUsh- 
ing  the  heel  edge. 

Heel  Lining.  The  lining  to  cover  heel 
nails  inside  the  shoe;  it  is  often  known  by 
other  names. 

Heel  Pad.  In  the  manufacture  of  shoes, 
is  a  small  piece  of  felt,  leather,  or  other 
substance  fastened  to  and  covering  the  full 
width  of  the  insole  at  the  point  upon  which 
the  heel  rests.  A  heel  cushion  is  sometimes 
called  a  heel  pad. 

[  193  ] 


LEATHER   AND    SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

Heel  Scouring.  Sandpapering  the  edge 
of  the  heel,  except  the  front  or  breast  por- 
tion. 

Heel  Seat.  That  part  of  sole  on  which 
heel  is  fastened. 

Heel  Seat  Nailing.  Nailing  the  heel 
part  of  sole. 

Heel  Seat  Trimming.  Trimming  the 
rear  or  heel  part  of  sole. 

Heel  Shaving.  Shaving  the  heel,  shap- 
ing it. 

Hemlock  Tanned.  A  process  of  tanning 
leather  by  hemlock  bark. 

Hides.  Distinguished  from  skins,  in  the 
trade.  Hides  refer  to  skins  of  animals 
which  are  over  twenty-five  pounds  in  weight. 
Skins  refer  to  smaller  animals ;  as  skins 
of  goats,  calves,  sheep. 

Inlay.  A  trimming  of  the  upper  by  an 
insertion  of  the  same  or  different  kind  of 
material  than  that  of  the  body  in  which 
it  is  inlaid.  It  is  used  for  decorative  pur- 
pose on  a  shoe. 

[194] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

Inse AMINO.  Sewing  sole  on  turn  shoe. 
Welting  and  inseaming  are  practically  the 
same  operation. 

Inseam  Trimming.  Cutting  off  the 
surplus  leather;  term  is  also  applied  to 
pulling  sole  tacks. 

Insole.  The  first  sole  laid  on  the  last, 
and  is  the  foundation  of  all  shoes  with 
insoles.  It  is  an  important  though  invis- 
ible portion  of  a  shoe.  This  inner  sole  is 
the  part  to  which  the  upper  and  outsole 
are  sewed  or  nailed  in  the  McKay  and  welt 
shoes. 

Inspecting.  The  examination  of  shoes 
to  see  that  the  work  is  perfect;  it  is  some- 
times called  crowning. 

Inspecting  Insole.  The  operation  of 
looking  inside  of  the  shoe  for  tacks. 

Instep.  The  top  of  the  arch  of  the 
foot. 

Iron.  A  term  indicating  the  thickness 
of  sole  leather;  each  unit  is  approximately 
one  thirty-second  of   an  inch  in  thickness. 

[195] 


LEATHER   AND    SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

Ironing  Uppers.  Taking  wrinkles  out 
of  the  uppers  and  smoothing  the  same  with 
a  hot  iron. 

Juliette.  A  woman's  house  shpper  which 
is  cut  a  Kttle  above  the  ankle  in  front  and 
back,  and  cut  down  on  the  sides  is  called 
a  Juliette. 

Kangaroo.  The  skin  of  the  animal  of 
that  name,  which  makes  a  splendid  leather, 
of  firm  texture.  It  is  quite  expensive, 
hence  substitutes  are  on  the  market  under 
the  same  name. 

Kid.  a  term  applied  to  the  shoe  leather 
made  from  the  skins  of  mature  goats. 

Kip.  a  term  applied  to  leather  made 
from  hides  weighing  between  fifteen  and 
twenty-five  pounds. 

Lace  Stay.  A  strip  of  leather  reenforc- 
ing  the  eyelet  holes. 

Lace  Hook.  An  eyelet  extended  into 
a  recurved  hook,  around  which  the  lace  is 
looped.  It  is  most  commonly  used  in 
men's  and  boys'   shoes,   although    recently 

[196] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

some  have  been  invented  for  use  in  women's 
shoes  with  curved  ends,  to  avoid  catching 
the  dress. 

Lacing.  The  operation  of  putting  laces 
in  shoes. 

Last.  A  wooden  form  over  which  the 
shoe  is  constructed,  giving  the  shoe  its 
distinctive  shape. 

Lasting.  The  process  of  making  the 
uppers  conform  to  the  last  in  all  respects. 
The  operations  of  assembling  and  pulling 
over  are  parts  of  lasting. 

Laying  Channel.  Turning  down  the  lip 
or  flap  to  cover  the  stitching. 

Leveling.  Shaping  the  sole  to  the 
bottom  of  the  last. 

Lift.  The  name  given  to  one  thickness 
of  sole  leather  used  in  the  heel.  Top  lift 
is  the  bottom  lift,  when  the  shoe  is  right 
side  up,  and  is  the  last  piece  put  on  in 
manufacture. 

Lining.  The  inside  part  of  shoe,  gener- 
ally of  cloth  (dull)  or  sheepskin. 

[  197  ] 


LEATHER  AND   SHOE^VIAKING  TERMS 

Lining  Cutting.  The  operation  of  cut- 
ting the  cloth  hnings. 

LiNiNG-iN.  The  operation  of  putting 
lining  inside  of  the  shoe  to  cover  insole 
or  part  of  insole. 

Loading  Leather.  Filling  the  pores  of 
the  leather  with  glucose  to  increase  its 
weight. 

IVLiKiNG  Linings.  Consists  of  closing 
up  heel  of  lining;  putting  on  top  and  side 
or  eyelet  stay. 

Match  IVLirking.  An  operation  per- 
formed on  colored  uppers,  except  black, 
to  get  different  parts  of  the  upper  the 
same  shade  and  color,  and  both  shoes  in 
the  pair  alike. 

Mat.  a  term  applied  to  a  dull  finish 
kid  as  distinguished  from  glazed. 

McKay  Sewed  or  McKay.  A  shoe  in 
which  the  outsole  is  attached  to  the  insole 
and  upper  by  a  method  named  for  the 
inventor. 

McKay   Sew^ing.     Sewing   through   and 

[198] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

through  so  that  thread  is  seen  inside  of 
shoe. 

Middle  Sole.  Any  sole  between  out- 
sole  and  insole. 

Mock  Welt.  McKay-sewed  shoe  with 
a  double  sole  and  having  a  leather  sock 
lining.     It  is  fair  stitched  to  imitate  a  welt. 

Monkey  Skin.  A  peculiar  grained  skin, 
and  is  considered  in  the  trade  as  a  fancy 
leather.     It  is  often  imitated. 

Morocco.  A  name  applied  to  leather 
originally  made  in  Morocco.  It  is  a  sumac- 
tanned  goatskin,  red  in  color,  and  is  used 
in  book  binding.  The  name  is  also  applied 
to  a  leather  made  in  imitation  of  this,  and 
to  heavy,  plump  goatskins  used  for  shoes. 

Molding.  Shaping  the  sole  to  fit  the 
bottom  of  last. 

Mules.  The  name  applied  to  slippefs 
with  no  counters  or  quarters. 

Nap.  The  woolly  side  of  hide,  cloth,  or 
felt. 

Naumkeaging.   Smoothing  up  the  bottom 

[199] 


LEATHER   AND    SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

with  fine  sandpaper.  Sometimes  the  buffing 
grain. 

NuLLiFiER.  A  shoe  with  high  vamp 
and  quarter,  dropping  low  at  the  sides, 
made  with  a  short  rubber  goring  for  sum- 
mer or  house  wear. 

Oak  Tanned.  A  process  of  tanning  by 
means  of  a  substance  obtained  from  oak  bark. 

Oil  Leather.  Leather  prepared  by 
currying  hides  in  oil.  The  hides  are  moist, 
that  the  oily  matter  may  be  gradually 
and  thoroughly  absorbed. 

Ooze.  A  chrome  tan  calfskin  treated  on 
the  flesh  side  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
long  fibers  are  loosened  and  form  a  nap 
surface;   made  in  many  colors. 

Outside  Cutting.  Cutting  the  leather 
parts  of  the  shoe,  as  vamp,  tip,  top,  etc. 

Outside  Tap.  The  tap  used  outside  of 
men's  or  boys'  heavy  shoes. 

Outsole.  The  sole  next  the  ground, 
on  which  all  wear  comes. 

Oxford.     A  low-cut  shoe  no  higher  than 

[200] 


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LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

the  instep  lace,  button,  or  goring,  made  in 
men's,  women's,  and  children's  sizes. 

Packer  Hides.  Hides  taken  off  in  the 
large  slaughterhouses.  They  are  rated 
slightly  higher  in  price,  because  great  care 
and  skill  are  used  in  taking  them  off. 

Packing.  Placing  a  pair  of  shoes  in  a 
carton. 

Pacs.  Coverings  for  the  feet  made  of 
good  quality  calfskin,  similar  in  form  and 
appearance  to  the  Indian  moccasin.  They 
do  not  have  sole  leather  bottoms.  If 
properly  made,  they  are  waterproof. 

Pancake.  A  term  applied  to  one  of  the 
many  artificial  leathers  formed  from  leather 
scraps,  shaved  thin,  and  cemented  together 
under  heavy  pressure. 

Pasted  Counter.  One  that  is  cut  from 
two  pieces  of  sole  leather  pasted  together. 
It  is  sometimes  called  a  two-piece  counter. 

Patent  Leather.     Varnished  leather. 

Pattern.     The    model    by    which    the 
pieces  comprising  the  upper  of  a  shoe  are 

[  201  ] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAEING   TERMS 

cut,  applied  collectively  to  upper  as  modified 
by  the  differing  shape  of  these  pieces. 

Pebble.  A  term  used  in  the  process 
to  bring  out  the  grain  of  leather  and  give 
it  a  roughened  or  rubbed  appearance. 

Pegging.     Lasting  out  soles  with  pegs. 

Perforating.  Making  very  small  holes 
around  parts  of  upper.  It  is  performed 
mostly  for  decoration. 

Polish.  The  name  of  ladies'  or  misses' 
front-lace  shoe  of  higher  cut  than  "bal," 
and  named  from  Poland,  where  it  originated. 

Pressing.  Consists  of  a  flat-press  pres- 
sure for  heels  and  soles,  to  prevent  cracking 
of  edges  and  to  make  parts  adhere. 

Porpoise.  This  skin  is  sometimes  used 
for  leather  and  boot  laces,  but  porpoise 
hides  are  ordinarily  obtained  from  the 
white  whale. 

Pulling  Lasts.  Removing  the  lasts  from 
shoes. 

Pulling  Over.  Pulling  upper  on  the 
last  and  tacking  it  in  position. 

[  202  ] 


LEATHER   AND    SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

Pump.  A  low-cut  shoe  originally  having 
no  fastenings,  such  as  laces  or  buttons.  A 
pump  is  cut  lower  than  the  instep. 

Pump  Sole.  An  extra-light  single  sole, 
running  clear  through  to  the  back  of  the 
heel.  A  pump  sole  in  former  years  was 
distinguished  by  its  flexibility  and  was 
hand  turned. 

Putting  on  Tap.  Sticking  half  sole  to 
the  outsole. 

Quarter.  The  rear  part  of  upper  when 
a  full  vamp  is  not  used.  Term  is  used 
mostly  in  women's,  and  Oxfords  or  low  shoes. 

Rand.  Made  of  sole  leather  about  as 
wide  as  a  welt,  but  thin  at  one  edge.  It  is 
tacked  to  the  heel  so  as  to  balance  the  heel 
evenly  on  the  sole  and  fill  any  open  space 
around  the  edge  between  sole  and  heel. 

Rapid  Stitching.  Sewing  the  sole  to 
welt. 

Relasting.  Consists  in  putting  lasts 
in  shoes  from  which  the  original  lasts  have 
been  removed. 

[203] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

Repairing.  A  term  applied  to  filling 
slight  cracks  in  patent  tips  or  patent  leather. 

Roan.  Sheepskin  tanned  with  sumac. 
The  process  is  similar  in  its  details  to  that 
employed  for  morocco  leather,  but  lacks 
the  graining  given  to  the  morocco  by  the 
grooved  rollers  in  the  finishing.  It  imitates 
ungrained  morocco. 

Rolling.  The  process  of  passing  leather 
between  rolls  to  make  it  firm  and  hard. 
Rolling  consists  in  polishing  the  bottom  on 
roll  and  brush. 

.  Rough  Rounding.  Rounding  outsole 
to  the  shape  of  last,  and  cutting  channel 
in  the  welt-channeled  shoes. 

Royalties.  Sums  paid  for  the  use  of 
machines  to  machine  companies. 

Russet  Calf.  Russet-colored  calf  is 
made  from  calfskins. 

Russet  Grain.  Russet-colored  grain  is 
made  from  a  split  cowhide. 

Sabot.  The  name  of  a  one-piece  wooden 
shoe,    carved   from   a   block   of  bass  wood. 

[204] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

A  novelty  to  Americans,  but  worn  by  people 
in  the  rural  and  manufacturing  sections  of 
Holland,  Germany,  and  France. 

Sack  Lining.  The  lining  inside  the  shoe 
and  insole. 

Sandal.  The  name  of  a  woman's  strap 
slipper,  or  a  sole  worn  by  children.  Origi- 
nally fastened  on  the  foot  by  straps. 

Satin  Calf.  A  grain  split,  stuffed  with 
oil,  and  smooth  finished. 

Scouring  Breast.  Sandpapering  the 
front  part  of  the  heel. 

Screw-fastened.  A  shoe  having  the 
sole  attached  with  screws,  as  in  cheap  or 
working  shoes. 

Seal  Grain.  Usually  a  flesh  split,  with 
an  artificial  grain  which  is  stamped  or 
printed  on  the  finished  leather. 

Second  Lasting.  The  same  as  relasting. 
Term  used  most  in  turn  work. 

Shank.  The  middle  position  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  foot.  Shank  supports  are  placed 
in  shoes  to  stiffen  that  part  of  the  bottom. 

[205] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAEING   TERMS 

They  are  of  steel,  of  wood,  or  of  a  conibina- 
tion  of  leather  board  and  steel,  and  can  be 
placed  in  the  shoe  any  time  before  the  out- 
sole  is  laid. 

Shank  Burnishing.  Polishing  a  black 
shank  with  hot  iron. 

Shank  Finishing.  Finishing  the  shank 
with  blacking  or  in  colors.  The  top  lift 
is  generally  finished  at  the  same  time. 

Shanking  Out.  Means  making  the  edge 
of  the  shank  thinner  than  the  other  part 
of  the  sole,  and  making  it  smooth. 

Sheepskins.  Used  largely  for  linings 
and  for  cheap  shoes  for  women  and  chil- 
dren. It  is  too  soft  and  weak  in  texture 
for  heavy  wear,  and  liable  to  split  and 
tear. 

Short  Vamp.  A  foreshortened  vamp. 
The  distance  between  the  extreme  tip  and 
the  throat  of  the  vamp  shortened  for 
appearances. 

Sides.  Leather  made  from  hides  which 
are  split  into  two  sides  down  the  back. 

[206] 


LEATHER   AND    SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

Side  Lasting.  Lasting  the  side  of  the 
shoe  onl}^ 

Size.  Shoes  are  measured  by  the  length 
and  width.  The  length  is  expressed  by 
numbers  and  the  widths  by  letters. 

Skins.  A  term  used  to  represent  the 
skin  covering  of  small  animals,  such  as  goats. 

Skirting.  The  outer  parts  of  leather 
(hide),  such  as  shanks,  bellies,  necks,  etc. 

Skiving.  Making  the  sole  the  same 
thickness  in  all  parts.  Skiving  means  cut- 
ting or  shaving  down  to  a  thin  edge.  This 
operation  may  be  done  in  the  cutting  de- 
partment or  stitching  department. 

Slip.  The  name  applied  to  spring  heels 
or  to  soles.  Slip  is  a  thin  piece  of  sole 
leather  inserted  above  the  outer  sole. 

Slugging.  Driving  slugs  in  heels,  on 
part  or  all  of  the  heel. 

Sock  Lining.  The  lining  for  insole, 
inside  of  shoe. 

Soft  Tip.  A  term  applied  to  a  shoe  on 
which  no  boxing  is  used  under  the  tip. 

[207] 


LEATHER  AND   SHOEMAEING  TERMS 

Soles  and  Sole  Leather.  Name  ap- 
plied to  pieces  of  leather  of  various  thick- 
ness on  the  bottom  of  a  shoe,  usually 
made  from  heavy  hides  of  leather.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  soles:  a  ''full-double" 
sole  has  two  thicknesses  of  leather  extending 
cleaT  back  to  the  heel;  ''half -double" 
sole  is  a  full  outer  sole,  with  slip  extending 
back  to  shank;  single  sole  is  self -defining ; 
"tap"  is  a  half  sole. 

Sole  Laying.  Sole  laying  is  the  opera- 
tion of  laying  the  outsole. 

Sorting.  The  process  of  selecting  and 
sorting  soles,  so  that  they  may  be  put  up 
in  different  qualities. 

Spewing.  Shoes  in  stock  sometimes  be- 
come coated  with  a  grayish  white,  powdery 
substance,  that  looks  like  mildew.  This 
formation  on  leather  that  is  not  fully 
seasoned  is  called  spewing,  and  the  deposit 
is  called  bloom.  It  can  readily  be  wiped 
off,  and  does  not  indicate  any  serious 
defect  or  trouble  with  the  leather.     It  is 

[208] 


LEATHER   AND    SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

not   a   mildew   or   growth,   but   apparently 
an  exudation  of  materials  used  in  tanning. 

Splits.  A  name  applied  to  split  leather, 
that  is,  two  or  more  parts  of  the  hide. 

Spring  Heel.  Consists  of  one  or  more 
lifts  used  between  the  outsole  and  upper. 
It  is  seen  mostly  in  children's  shoes  and  is 
often  called  wedge  heel.  It  can  also  be 
put  on  outside  instead  of  under  the  out- 
sole. 

Stamping.  The  operation  of  putting  size 
and  width  on  the  inside  of  the  shoe.  Parts 
of  the  uppers  are  often  stamped  or  marked 
so  that  the  whole  are  put  together  properly 
in  the  stitching  room. 

Stay.  The  name  given  to  any  piece  of 
leather  put  in  the  upper  to  strengthen  it 
or  to  strengthen  a  seam. 

Stamping  Bottoms.  The  operation  of 
stamping  name  on  bottom.  It  is  often 
performed  in  finishing  rooms. 

Stamping  Carton.  Putting  the  size, 
width,  and  other  marks  on  carton. 

[209] 


LEATHER   AND    SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

Stamping  Sizes.  Stamping  sizes  on  heel 
part  of  the  sole. 

Standard-fastened.  Nailing  bottom  on 
standard  screw  machine. 

Staying.  Putting  on  a  stay,  generally 
heel  stay. 

Stitch  Separating.  Marking  between 
stitches  so  as  to  make  them  show  to  good 
advantage. 

Stitch  Down.  A  term  applied  to  a  flex- 
ible shoe  used  in  the  army,  in  which  the 
top  is  turned  out  instead  of  under  and 
stitched  through  the  sole. 

Stitched  Aloft.  A  term  used  to  indi- 
cate that  the  sewing  stitches  show  on  the 
bottom.  No  channel  is  necessary  in  this 
sole.  It  may  be  a  slight  groove.  In  stitch- 
ing, the  shoe  is  held  bottom  up,  therefore 
the  name  "stitched  aloft." 

Straight  Last.  One  that  is  neither 
right  nor  left,  and  a  shoe  made  over  such 
a  last  can  be  worn  on  either  foot.  This 
term   is    sometimes    applied    to   right    and 

[210] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

left  shoes  that   have  a   barely  perceptible 
outside  swing. 

Stripping.  Consists  of  cutting  in  strips 
wide  enough  to  cut  soles  all  of  equal  size 
in  length. 

Suede.  A  trade  term  applied  to  kid 
skins,  finished  on  the  flesh  side. 

Swing.  A  term  applied  to  the  curve  of 
the  outer  edge  of  a  sole. 

Tacking  On.  Consists  in  laying  the 
outsole  on  McKay's  lasted  shoes. 

Tack  Pulling  and  Trimming  Out. 
Consist  of  preparing  bottom  for  welting. 
It  also  makes  it  better  for  the  opera- 
tion. 

Tampico.  a  variety  of  goat  skins  com- 
ing from  the  province  of  Tampico,  Central 
America. 

Tap.  Half  of  a  complete  sole,  often 
called  half  sole  when  used  under  outsole. 

Tan.     Tan  is  a  sort  of  brownish  leather. 

Tanning.  Tanning  is  the  process  of 
converting  hides  or  skins  into  leather. 

[211] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

Tap  Trimming.  Shaping  the  tap  to 
conform  to  the  sole. 

TaWing.  The  process  of  making  leather 
by  soaking  hides  in  a  solution  of  salt  and 
alum,  or  by  packing  them  down  with  dry 
salt  and  powdered  alum.  Used  to  prepare 
skin  rugs  and  furs. 

Tempering.  The  operation  of  wetting 
the  leather  in  water  to  take  hardness  out 
and  make  leather  "mull,"  so  that  it  may 
be  worked  easier. 

Tip.  The  toe  piece  which  is  stitched 
to  the  vamp  and  outside  of  it.  Stock 
tip  is  a  tip  of  the  same  material  as  the 
vamp.  Patent  tip  is  a  patent  leather  tip. 
Diamond  tip  refers  to  the  shape  ex- 
tending back  to  a  point.  Imitation  tip- 
stitching  across  the  vamp  is  imitation  of 
a  tip. 

Tip  Cutting.  Cutting  the  tip  which 
goes  on  the  toe  of  the  vamp. 

Toe  and  Heel  Lasting.     Lasting  heel 

and  toe. 

[212] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

Toe  Piece.  A  piece  attached  to  cut-off 
vamp  to  lengthen  it. 

Tongue.  A  narrow  strip  of  leather  nec- 
essary on  all  laced  shoes. 

Top.  The  part  of  the  upper  above  the 
vamp;   tip  of  shoe. 

Top  Cutting.     Cutting  the  top  only. 

Top  Facing.  The  strip  of  leather  or 
band  of  cloth  around  the  top  of  the  shoe 
on  the  inside  is  called  the  top  facing.  It 
adds  to  the  finish  of  the  lining,  and  is  some- 
times used  to  advertise  the  name  of  manu- 
facturers by  a  design  of  letters  woven  or 
sewed  on  it. 

Top  Lift.  The  lift  which  is  next  to  the 
ground. 

Top  Lift  Scouring.  Sandpapering  top 
lift  of  heel  to  make  it  smooth. 

Top  Stitching.  Consists  of  stitching 
across  the  top  and  down  the  side. 

Treeing.  Shaping  the  shoe,  making  it 
smooth.  Produces  the  same  effect  as  iron- 
ing, although  no  hot  iron  is  used.     It  makes 

[213] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

the  upper  plump  and  gives  it  a  good  finish 
and  "feel." 

Trimming  Cutting.  Cutting  stays,  fac- 
ings, and  other  small  parts  of  the  upper. 

Trimming  Vamp.  Cutting  oflF  hanging 
or  surplus  thread. 

Turning.  To  turn  shoe  right  side  out. 
Also  turning  upper  right  side  out. 

Turned  Shoe.  A  lady's  fine  shoe  that 
is  made  wrong  side  out,  then  turned  right 
side  out,  which  operation  necessitates  the 
use  of  a  thin,  flexible  sole  of  good  quality. 
The  sole  is  fastened  to  the  last,  the  upper 
is  lasted  over  it  wrong  side  out,  then  the 
two  are  sewed  together,  the  thread  catching 
through  a  channel  cut  in  the  edge  of  the 
sole.  The  seam  does  not  come  through  to 
the  bottom  of  the  sole  where  it  would  chafe 
the  foot  on  inside. 

Upper.  A  term  applied  collectively  to 
the  upper  parts  of  a  shoe. 

Ungrained.     Smooth  surface. 

Vamp.     The  lower  or  front  part  of  the 

[^14] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING   TERMS 

upper  of  a  shoe.  It  is  the  most  impor- 
tant piece  of  the  upper  and  should  be 
cut  from  the  strongest  and  cleanest 
part  of  the  skin.  ''Cut-off"  vamp  is  one 
that  extends  only  to  the  tip,  instead  of 
being  continued  to  the  toe  and  lasted 
under  with  the  tip.  Whole  vamp  is  one 
that  extends  to  the  heel  without  a  seam. 

Vamping.     Stitching  the  vamp  to  the  top. 

Vaivip  Cutting.  Cutting  vamp  with  or 
without  the  tip. 

Velour.  A  finish  for  calf  leather.  It 
is  the  French  name  for  velvet  and  is  used 
in  the  shoe  trade  for  a  patent  chrome-tanned 
calf  leather.  It  is  an  excellent  leather  and 
has  a  smooth  and  velvety  finish. 

Vellum.  A  name  for  skins  that  are 
made  into  a  variety  of  parchment. 

Veneering.  Consists  in  making  soles, 
whole  or  part,  heavier,  by  means  of  leather- 
board  or  other  material  fastened  to  the 
sole  by  an  adhesive. 

Vesting.     A  material  originally  designed 

[215] 


LEATHER  AND  SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

.for  making  vests.  As  used  in  shoes,  it  is 
made  with  fancy-figured  weave,  having  a 
backing  of  stiff  buckram  or  rubber-treated 
tissue  to  strengthen  it. 

ViscoLiziNG.  A  patent  method  of  water- 
proofing sole  leather  by  the  use  of  partly 
emulsified  oils  with  a  water-resisting  tend- 
ency. Viscolized  soles  are  used  in  hunting 
and  sporting  boots. 

Vici.  A  patent  trade  name  for  a  brand 
of  chrome-tanned  kid. 

Wash  Leather.  An  inferior  quality  of 
chamois. 

Welt.  A  narrow  strip  of  leather  that 
is  sewed  to  the  upper  of  a  shoe  with  an 
insole  leaving  the  edge  of  the  welt  extend- 
ing outward,  so  that  the  outsole  can  be 
attached  by  sewing  through  both  welt  and 
outsole,  around  the  outside  of  the  shoe. 
The  attaching  of  the  sole  and  upper  thus 
involves  two  sewings,  first  the  insole,  welt 
and  upper,  then  the  outsole  to  the  welt. 
The  name  is  applied  to  the  shoe  itself  when 

[216] 


LEATHER   AND   SHOEMAKING  TERMS 

made  in  this  way  to  distinguish  it  from  a 
turned,  or  McKay  sewed  shoe.  This  is  the 
method  used  by  cobblers  in  the  production 
of  hand-sewed  shoes  to  fasten  the  sole  and 
upper  together.  Goodyear  welt  is  a  welt 
in  which  the  sewing  is  done  by  a  machine 
named  for  the  inventor.  There  are  very 
few  hand-welted  shoes  made. 

Welt  Beating.  The  flattening  out  of 
the  welt,  making  it  smooth. 

Welting.     Sewing  the  welt  to  shoe. 

White  Alum.  Bleached  leather  tawed 
with  white  alum. 

Wooden  Case.  Large  box  for  twelve  or 
more  pairs. 


[217] 


CHAPTER  TEN 

LEATHER   PRODUCTS   MANUFACTURE 

THE  use  of  gloves  is  so  old  that  relics 
of  them  have  been  found  in  the 
habitations  of  the  cave  dwellers.  The 
Romans  used  them  as  decorative  articles 
of  dress  and  the  Greeks  to  protect  the  hands 
when  doing  heavy  work. 

The  gloves  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  in  the 
days  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  before  and 
after,  were  most  beautiful  in  hand  work- 
manship and  embellishments,  but  they 
were  usually  shapeless  things,  and  in  these 
days  no  one  would  wear  them;  they  are 
not  to  be  compared  with  the  elegant  style 
and  artistic  finish  of  the  modern  product. 

When  the  social  world  was  restricted,  so 
to  speak,  in  the  numbers  of  its  members  who 
could  afford  some  of  life's  luxuries,  the  use 

[218] 


LEATHER  PRODUCTS  MANUFACTURE 

of  the  glove  was  confined  largely  to  royalty, 
nobility,  and  the  well-to-do.  And  the  trade 
not  being  extensive,  prices  were  high  — 
being  added  to  by  decorative  elaboration 
in  needlework  in  order  that  the  manufac- 
turer and  his  employees  might  extract  as 
much  money  as  possible  from  the  ultimate 
buyer.  While  glove  making  is  now  one  of 
the  stabilities  of  modern  manufacture,  it 
is,  nevertheless,  constantly  changing  in 
styles,  due  to  eagerness  for  novelties  and 
new  fashions. 

Glove  making  of  leather,  in  a  rough, 
crude  form,  was  carried  on  in  this  country 
to  a  very  limited  extent  in  New  York  State 
as  early  as  1760,  by  glove  makers  brought 
from  Scotland  to  settle  on  the  grants  of 
Sir  William  Johnson,  in  Fulton  county. 
But  there  was  no  general  market  for  the 
home  product  until  one  was  found  in  Albany 
in  1825.  These  early  gloves,  crude  and 
clumsy,  were  cut  with  shears  from  leather 
by  means  of  pasteboard  patterns,  and  men 

[219] 


LEATHER  PRODUCTS  MANUFACTURE 

did  the  cutting  and  women  the  sewing. 
Dies  were  later  introduced,  and  this  led  to 
a  great  improvement  in  the  character  of 
the  output. 

But  a  still  greater  step  forward  was  taken 
when  the  sewing  machine  was  introduced 
in  1852.  This  abolished  handwork  entirely, 
but  still  the  industry  remained  largely  of 
a  domestic  nature,  since  it  could  be  carried 
on  at  home  with  a  machine  as  well  as  in  a 
factory.  Later  steam  power  was  installed 
in  factories  with  which  to  run  the  machines. 
The  cutting  of  gloves,  and  the  stitching 
on  the  backs,  was  done  before  the  gloves 
were  sent  out  to  be  completed  in  workers' 
homes. 

As  in  everything  wherein  power  can  be 
substituted  for  hand  labor  in  these  days, 
the  methods  of  glove  manufacture  have 
undergone  a  great  transformation.  The 
treating  of  skins  in  a  great  tub,  three  feet 
deep,  whole  dyeing  and  scouring,  in  rooms 
of   high    temperature,    has   been    displaced 

[220] 


LEATHER  PRODUCTS  MANUFACTURE 

by  putting  skins  and  colors  into  a  cube- 
shaped  box,  which,  revolving  with  an  irregu- 
lar motion,  produces  the  same  results  more 
quickly  than  by  the  primitive  way.  But 
when  color  is  to  be  applied  to  but  one  side 
the  process  is  the  same  as  of  old,  —  hand 
use  of  a  brush  while  the  skin  is  stretched 
out  on  a  slab. 

When  taken  from  the  stock  on  hand  to 
be  made  into  gloves,  the  first  thing  done 
to  skins  by  some  glove  makers  is  to  "feed" 
them  with  eggs  —  not  eggs  of  suspicious 
merits,  but  good  enough  for  table  use.  And 
of  these  nothing  is  used  but  the  yolk.  One 
glove  maker  imports  from  China  large 
quantities  of  the  yolks  of  duck  eggs  for  his 
work,  and  his  yearly  consumption  of  yolks 
amounts  to  seventeen  thousand. 

When  the  skins  leave  the  dyehouse, 
they  are  rapidly  dried  in  steam-heated 
lofts ;  and  while  stiff  and  rough  they  are,  or 
were,  worked  into  softness  and  smoothness 
over  a  wooden  upright  standard,  called  a 

[mi] 


LEATHER  PRODUCTS  MANUFACTURE 

stake,  at  the  top  of  which  is  fitted  a  blunt 
semicircular  knife.  Over  this  the  skin  is 
drawn  by  hand,  back  and  forth,*  until  it 
becomes  as  pliable  and  delicate  as  silk. 
When  this  work  was  done  manually  it  was 
most  laborious.  But  now  it  has  been 
mostly  taken  over  by  very  ingenious  machin- 
ery, which  looks,  in  operation,  as  if  it  would 
tear  a  skin  into  fragments  by  the  way  it 
snaps  and  pulls  at  it,  but  which  is  adjustable 
to  such  nicety  of  action  and  power  that  the 
work  is  done  exactly  as  it  is  wanted. 

The  next  operation  is  to  pare  the  skins 
to  uniformity  of  thickness.  This  also  was 
handwork  for  a  long  time,  done  with  a 
peculiarly  shaped  knife,  but  now  emery- 
coated  wheels,  with  rounded  edges,  are 
used  by  the  workers,  who,  with  their  aid, 
do  just  as  good  and  much  faster  work  in 
drawing  and  thinning  the  skins  with  abso- 
lute precision.  This  completes  the  treat- 
ment of  the  skin. 

Now  the  function  of  the  cutter  begins, 

[m2] 


LEATHER  PRODUCTS  MANUFACTURE 

and  he  must  be  a  workman  of  experience 
and  good  judgment,  in  that  he  must  contend 
with  the  inconstant  inelasticity  of  the  skin, 
reducing  it  to  uniform  resistance.  He  must 
get  so  many  pieces  of  glove  size  from  each 
skin,  and  suit  the  pieces  to  particular  fea- 
tures of  the  skin.  When  done  with  a  skin 
he  must  have  left,  as  useless,  only  trifling 
strips  and  shreads.  The  shapeliness  of  the 
glove  which  a  woman  draws  over  her  hand, 
depends  altogether  upon  the  intelligence 
and  skill  of  the  cutter.  In  American  fac- 
tories the  cutter  is  usually  from  some 
glove-making  center  in  Europe  and  from 
a  family  whose  occupation  has  been  glove 
making  for  centuries. 

A  punch  next  cuts  these  glove  pieces 
into  shape,  forming  and  dividing  the  fingers, 
slitting  the  buttonholes,  providing  side 
pieces  for  fingers  and  thumbs,  and  also 
the  fragments  used  for  strengthening  the 
buttonholes.  The  sewing,  formerly  the 
handiwork    of    women,    is    now    done    on 

[  223  ] 


LEATHER  PRODUCTS  MANUFACTURE 

machines  of  capacity  for  exceptionally  fine 
quality  of  intricate  stitching.  The  number 
of  glove  sizes  made  is  sufficient  to  meet 
every  likely  demand.  When  sewn,  and  the 
buttons  or  fastenings  put  on,  they  pass 
beneath  the  critical  eye  of  an  inspector  for 
scrutiny  as  to  faults.  Then  they  are  finally 
shaped  on  a  hot  metal  hand,  smoothed, 
banded,  boxed,  and  sent  to  the  salesroom 
for  shipment. 

The  first  and  fourth  fingers  of  a  glove  are 
completed  by  gussets,  or  strips,  sewed  only 
on  the  inner  side ;  but  the  second  and  third 
fingers  require  gussets  on  both  sides  to 
complete  the  fingers.  In  addition  to  these, 
small,  diamond-shaped  pieces  are  sewed  in 
at  the  roots  of  the  fingers.  Special  care  is 
necessary  in  sewing  in  the  thumb  pieces, 
as  poorly  made  gloves  usually  give  way  at 
this  point. 

Natural  lined  gloves  are  now  common 
enough,  although  it  is  not  many  years 
since  they  were  regarded  as  impracticable. 

[224] 


LEATHER  PRODUCTS  MANUFACTURE 

These  are  made  from  pelts  of  various 
animals  with  the  hair  left  on  the  skin  to 
form  the  lining. 

Automobile  and  Furniture  Leather 

For  automobile  and  furniture  leather 
only  choice  hides  should  be  used.  The 
kind  of  hides  generally  employed  for  this 
class  of  leather  are  French  and  Swiss,  as 
these  run  full  and  plump  on  the  bellies,  are 
free  from  cuts  on  the  flesh  and  are  of  clear 
grain.  The  hides  are  trimmed  before  plac- 
ing them  in  the  soaking  pits,  all  useless 
parts,  such  as  nose,  shanks,  etc.,  being  cut 
away. 

After  remaining  in  soak  for  a  day  or  two, 
the  hides  are  hauled  out,  fleshed,  and 
returned  to  the  soaks  for  thorough  softening. 
When  thoroughly  soaked,  they  are  toggled 
and  reeled  into  the  first  lime.  The  first 
lime  must  be  a  weak,  mellow  lime,  or  a 
harsh  grain  will  show  after  the  leather  is 

[225] 


LEATHER  PRODUCTS  MANUFACTURE 

tanned.  The  hides  are  reeled  over  into 
stronger  limes  every  day  for  seven  days, 
when  they  are  ready  for  unhairing.  After 
coming  from  the  limes,  the  hides  should 
go  into  a  pit  of  soft  water  heated  to  about 
ninety  degrees  Fahrenheit  and  left  over 
night  before  starting  in  to  unhair.  After 
unhairing,  they  are  thrown  into  a  vat 
of  clean  water  and  thoroughly  worked  out 
on  the  grain  to  remove  short  hairs  and  scud 
and  are  then  ready  for  bating.  One  that 
has  a  little  bacterial  action  is  preferred  to 
an  acid  bate.  After  bating,  the  hides  are 
given  a  good  scudding  on  the  grain  and  are 
then  ready  for  the  tanning  liquors. 

The  liquors  are  made  of  hemlock  and  oak 
and  are  used  very  weak  on  the  start.  The 
hides  are  suspended  for  a  day  in  a  liquor 
not  over  six  degrees  specific  gravity  reading 
in  strength,  and  the  following  day  shifted 
over  into  a  stronger  liquor.  The  stock  is 
given  stronger  liquors  every  day  until 
tanned  enough  for  splitting. 

[226] 


LEATHER  PRODUCTS  MANUFACTURE 

The  stock  is  struck  out  smoothly  and 
brought  to  the  machine  for  spHtting.  The 
buffing  is  first  taken  away  and  sold  for  hat 
bands,  pocket-books,  etc.  The  grains  are 
finished  and  the  splits  are  returned  to  the 
tanning  liquors  to  be  thoroughly  tanned. 
As  soon  as  the  splits  are  tanned,  they  are 
washed  up,  drained,  and  then  drummed 
in  the  drum  in  a  sumac  liquor.  They  are 
now  scoured,  and,  after  being  well  set  out, 
are  given  a  good  oiling  with  cod  oil. 

They  are  now  tacked  out  on  the  frames 
and  dried  out.  They  are  next  taken  from 
the  frames  and  boarded  by  hand  over  the 
table.  The  splits  are  taken  to  the  japan 
shop  and  are  tacked  out  again  and  are 
ready  for  the  first  coat  of  daub.  Two  coats 
are  applied.  After  each  coat,  the  splits 
are  well  rubbed  down,  when  they  receive 
the  slicker  coat.  The  color  coats  are  now 
applied,  and  after  drying  out,  the  leather 
is  grained  up  and  finished. 

[227] 


CHAPTER  ELEVEN 

RUBBER   SHOE   MANUFACTURE 

EXAMINE  the  rubbers  we  wear  during 
the  winter  and  stormy  weather. 

Rubber  shoe  coverings  are  made  to  pro- 
tect the  shoe  from  water  and  snow  and 
may  be  in  the  form  of  either  slippers  or 
arctics.  The  covering  is  rendered  water- 
proof by  means  of  a  compound  rubber. 

Rubber  is  the  name  given  to  a  coagulated 
milky  juice  obtained  from  many  different 
trees,  vines,  and  shrubs  that  grow  on  that 
part  of  the  earth's  surface  which  forms  a 
band  some  three  or  four  hundred  miles  on 
either  side  of  the  equator. 

Rubber  is  graded  commercially,  according 
to  the  district  where  it  is  found.  In  the 
order  of  importance  it  may  be  divided  into 
three  general  sorts,  viz.,  American,  African, 

[228] 


o 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

and  Asiatic.  The  best  and  largest  quanti- 
ties of  rubber  come  from  Brazil,  along  the 
banks  of  the  Amazon  River.  The  countries 
in  the  northern  and  western  part  of  South 
America,  and  the  Central  American  States 
and  Mexico  furnish  considerable  rubber. 
Eastern  and  western  Africa  also  produce 
many  kinds  of  rubber  in  large  quantities, 
though  somewhat  inferior  to  the  Brazilian 
product.  The  Asiatic  rubbers  are  unim- 
portant in  quantity,  and,  excepting  the 
rubber  obtained  from  cultivated  trees  in 
Ceylon,  are  decidedly  inferior  in  quality. 
The  fluid  rubber  obtained  from  Brazil 
is  called  Para  and  is  used  principally  in 
the  manufacture  of  rubber  footwear.  The 
method  of  gathering  and  coagulating  the 
rubber  juice  (called  latex)  varies  in  the 
different  countries.  The  native  first  clears 
a  space  under  a  number  of  trees  and  pro- 
ceeds to  tap  the  trees  with  a  short-handled 
ax,  having  a  small  blade,  by  cutting  gashes 
in  the  bark.     A  cup  is  fixed  under  each  cut 

[  229  ] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

to  catch  the  fluid  as  it  flows  out.  As  fast 
as  the  cups  are  filled,  they  are  emptied 
into  a  large  vessel  and  carried  to  the  camp 
to  be  coagulated.  A  fire  is  started  in  a 
shallow  hole  in  the  ground,  and  palm  nuts, 
which  make  a  dense  smoke,  are  thrown  on. 
An  earthen  cover  which  has  a  small  opening 
on  top  is  placed  over  the  fire,  allowing  the 
smoke  to  escape  through  the  opening.  A 
wooden  paddle  is  first  dipped  in  clay  water 
and  then  into  the  latex  and  then  held  over 
the  smoke.  The  heat  coagulates  a  thin 
layer  of  rubber  on  the  paddle.  It  is  dipped 
again  and  again  in  the  latex  and  smoked 
each  time.  After  being  dipped  many  times, 
a  lump  (called  biscuit)  of  rubber  is  formed. 
A  cut  is  made  in  the  biscuit  and  the  paddle 
removed.  Then  the  rubber  is  ready  for 
market.  The  world's  crop  of  rubber  in 
1911  was  about  ninety  thousand  tons. 

Few  people  realize  the  number  of  opera- 
tions necessary  to  produce  from  the  crude 
biscuit  of  India  rubber  the  highly  finished 

[230] 


T3 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

rubber  shoe  of  to-day.  Briefly  stated,  the 
various  steps  are  washing,  drying,  com- 
pounding, calendering,  cutting  the  various 
parts,  making  or  putting  these  parts  to- 
gether, varnishing,  vulcanizing,  and  packing. 
Each  of  these  processes  requires  a  distinct 
and  separate  department,  and  many  of  these 
processes  are  subdivided  into  minor  opera- 
tions. 

The  huge  stock  of  Para  rubber,  that  is 
rubber  obtained  from  the  Amazon  section, 
to  be  found  in  any  of  the  leading  rubber 
factories  counts  well  up  into  the  thousands 
of  dollars.  With  rubber  at  or  near  $1.50 
per  pound,  a  stock  of  ten  to  fifty  tons  runs 
up  into  the  five  or  six  figures. 

This  crude  rubber,  as  it  comes  from  the 
Amazon,  contains  more  or  less  dirt,  pebbles, 
and  other  foreign  substances,  which  must 
be  removed. 

The  large  cakes  of  crude  rubber  are  first 
broken  up  by  a  cracker  machine,  consisting 
of    two    large,    revolving    steel    cylinders, 

[  231  ] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

from  which  the  product  falls  into  pans  or 
trays.  It  goes  then  to  a  machine  known  as 
a  "washer"  or  "sheeter,"  where  it  is  run 
between  revolving  cylinders,  upon  which  a 
continuous  spray  of  clean  water  is  main- 
tained. After  being  rolled  into  rough  sheets, 
it  is  put  into  a  tank,  from  which  it  is  taken 
to  the  "beater"  machine,  in  which  water 
runs  continuously,  and  then  it  is  washed 
again  and  "sheeted  out."  It  is  then  dried 
in  one  of  two  ways. 

(1)  The  older  way.  The  sheets  are 
hung  over  rods  in  a  large  room,  and  allowed 
to  dry  in  the  air.  To  facilitate  the  same, 
a  fan  or  blower  is  often  used  to  cause  a 
circulation  and  removal  of  the  moisture- 
laden  air.  This  requires  a  period  of  from 
one  to  two  or  three  months. 

(2)  The  second  method  is  called  vacuum 
drying.  This  process  is  gradually  being 
introduced,  so  that  now  probably  more 
rubber  is  dried  in  vacuum  than  by  air. 
The  vacuum  drier  consists  of  a  large  iron 

[232] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

cylinder  filled  with  plates,  through  which 
steam  is  allowed  to  circulate.  The  rubber 
is  placed  on  the  plates  and  the  air  is  ex- 
hausted from  the  cylinder  by  means  of  an 
air  pump  until  very  nearly  twenty-six 
degrees  of  vacuum  are  obtained.  By  this 
process  only  from  two  to  three  hours  are 
required  to  produce  perfectly  dry  rubber. 

The  making  of  a  rubber  shoe  is  not  the 
simple  matter  which  might  at  first  be 
supposed.  An  ordinary  rubber  shoe  con- 
sists of  at  least  seven  or  eight  different 
parts,  sometimes  twenty-one  parts  to  a  pair, 
while  a  high -button  gaiter  has  seventeen 
distinct  parts,  and  a  rubber  boot  has  twenty- 
three  different  pieces.  There  are  insoles, 
outsoles,  stays,  piping,  foxing,  and  a  dozen 
other  different  pieces,  each  one  of  which  is 
necessary  to  the  proper  construction  of  a 
rubber  shoe  or  boot.  The  thinner  sheets 
for  the  uppers  are  cut  by  hand,  the  deft 
work  of  the  cutters  in  following  the  patterns 
outlined  on  the  sheets  being  the  result  of 

[233] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

years  of  practice.  The  sheets  of  rubber 
from  which  the  uppers  and  soles  are  cut 
are  at  this  stage  of  the  work  plastic  and 
very  sticky.  It  is  necessary  on  this  account 
to  cut  the  various  pieces  one  by  one,  and 
keep  them  separate.  The  soles  and  some 
of  the  heavier  pieces  are  dried  out  by  the 
machine,  and  the  heels  are  made  by  a  special 
machine,  but  by  far  the  greater  part  is  done 
by  wonderfully  skilled  hands.  All  of  these 
parts  which  go  to  make  a  shoe,  or  the 
twenty-three  parts  which  go  into  a  boot, 
are  collected  and  sent  to  the  making  depart- 
ment, which,  in  most  factories,  is  a  large 
room  containing  several  hundred  operatives, 
each  working  by  herself,  and  bringing  the 
many  separate  parts  into  the  fully  finished 
footwear. 

The  sheets  of  rubber,  after  being  dried, 
are  taken  to  the  *' compound"  room,  where 
they  are  sprinkled  with  whiting,  to  prevent 
sticking,  and  weighed.  Next  they  are  taken 
into  the  calender  room  to  a  "mixer,"  by 

[234] 


o 
o 

CI 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

means  of  which  the  rubber  is  combined 
with  other  substances,  which  inchide  sul- 
phur, Htharge,  whiting,  lampblack,  tar, 
^esin,  lime,  palm  oil,  and  linseed  oil. 

There  are  different  calendering  machines. 
The  ones  called  the  upper  calenders  form 
sheets  of  rubber  stock  for  the  upper  part  of 
the  shoe.  The  soling  calenders  form  the 
stock  for  the  sole  or  bottom  part  of  the 
shoe;  other  calender  machines  are  used  to 
coat  a  layer  of  gum  on  one  side  of  the 
fabrics  used  for  lining  and  various  strips, 
fillers,  toe,  and  heel  pieces.  The  gum 
sheets  are  sent  to  the  cutting  room. 

Generally,  linings  for  nine  pairs  of  shoes 
are  cut  at  once.  The  linings  are  cut  both 
by  hand  and  by  machine.  Men  who  cut 
with  dies,  by  hand,  stand  at  the  bench  and 
use  iron  mallets,  like  those  used  in  cutting 
heels.  Inner  soles,  heel  pieces,  and  linings 
are  all  cut  by  means  of  dies  in  the  same 
manner. 

The  edges  of  the  several  parts  are  spread 

[235] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

with  cement,  and  then  the  parts  are  taken 
to  the  making  room  and  distributed.  In 
the  making  department  the  boots  and  shoes 
are  put  together.  Women  make  the  Hght 
overshoes;  men  make  the  heavy  ones. 
Rubbers  are  made  by  women,  but  men  put 
on  the  outer  soles. 

Linings  are  first  appHed  smoothly  to  a 
wooden  last  and  cemented  together,  the 
cement  side  out.  The  rubber  parts  are 
then  stuck  on  and  rolled  firmly  with  a 
small  hand  roller.  Young  women  become 
very  skilled  in  this  work,  taking  up  the 
several  parts  in  rapid  succession,  placing 
them  accurately  upon  the  last,  and  rolling 
and  pounding  them  firmly  together. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  single  pro- 
cess is  that  of  putting  the  rubber  boot 
together.  This  work  is  done  by  men,  and 
requires,  in  addition  to  accurate  eyesight, 
rapid  and  very  deft  movements  of  the  hand 
and  considerable  strength.     No  nails,  tacks, 

or    stitching    are    required.     The    natural 

[  236  ] 


o 
o 

o 


^ 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

adhesiveness  of  the  rubber,  assisted  by  the 
use  of  rubber  cement,  holds  the  parts 
soUdly  together. 

In  the  making  of  the  shoe  the  last  is 
covered  with  the  various  pieces  which  are 
so  made  as  to  adhere  where  they  are  placed. 
It  is  exact  and  nice  work  fitting  all  these 
pieces  perfectly,  each  edge  overlapping  just 
so  far  and  no  farther.  The  lighter  shoes 
are  made  by  women,  but  the  heavy  lumber- 
men's shoes,  arctics,  and  especially  the 
boots,  are  made  by  men,  for  this  work  needs 
strength  as  well  as  dexterity. 

The  goods  which  require  varnishing  are 
put  on  racks  and  treated  with  a  mixture  of 
boiled  linseed  oil,  naphtha,  and  other 
materials,  which  are  applied  with  brushes, 
and  impart  a  gloss  to  the  surface. 

On  vulcanizing  boots  and  shoes,  the 
shoes  are  placed  on  racks  supported  by 
iron  cars,  which  are  run  over  tracks  into 
the  vulcanizing  chamber.  This  consists 
principally     of     a     large     room    provided 

[  237  ] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

with  a  steam  coil  on  the  floor.  The  tem- 
perature rarely  exceeds  two  hundred 
and  sixty  degrees  Fahrenheit.  In  vulcaniz- 
ing shoes,  the  heat  is  increased  gradually 
from  the  beginning,  about  one  hundred  and 
eighty  degrees  Fahrenheit,  otherwise  the 
goods  would  be  blistered,  due  to  the  rapid 
evaporation  of  moisture  and  other  volatile 
constituents.  They  are  kept  in  these 
heaters  from  six  to  seven  hours.  This 
causes  a  union  of  sulphur  and  rubber,  which 
is  not  affected  by  heat  or  cold. 

They  are  wheeled  on  another  truck  to  the 
packing  room,  where  they  are  inspected, 
taken  from  the  lasts,  tied  together  in 
pairs,  or  placed  in  cartons,  as  the  case  may 
be.  They  are  then  sent  to  the  shipping 
room  to  be  packed  in  cases  ready  to  be 
delivered  to  the  cars  waiting  at  a  side  track 
of  the  railroad,  or  sent  to  the  storehouse 
until  they  shall  be  called  for  by  the  jobbers 
or  retail  dealers. 

An  important  branch  of  the  rubber  busi- 

[  238  ] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

ness  is  the  manufacture  of  tennis  shoes. 
This  is  a  generic  term,  which  is  appHed  to 
all  kinds  of  footwear  having  cloth  tops  and 
rubber  soles.  As  the  name  indicates,  they 
were  first  used  in  playing  the  game  of 
tennis,  but  they  have  come  into  very  general 
use  as  warm  weather  and  vacation  shoes, 
and  every  year  shows  an  increased  popu- 
larity. These  shoes  are  made  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  rubber  shoes,  the  rubber 
soles  being  cemented  to  the  cloth  uppers  and 
vulcanized  the  same  as  the  rubber  over- 
shoes. Many  diflFerent  styles  are  made, 
and  each  year  shows  some  improvements  in 
the  shapes,  in  the  textiles  which  are  used, 
in  the  colors  and  combinations  of  soles  and 
uppers. 

Rubber  shoes  should  not  be  expected  to 
give  satisfactory  service  unless  properly 
fitted.  If  too  short,  too  narrow,  or  if  worn 
over  leathers  with  extra  heavy  taps,  or 
unusually  thick,  wide  soles,  strains  will  be 
brought  upon  parts  not  designed  to  stand 

[  239  ] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

them  and  the  rubber  will  give  way.  Rubber 
goods,  particularly  boots,  if  too  large  will 
wrinkle  and  a  continued  wrinkling  and 
bending  is  liable  to  cause  cracking. 

Extreme  heat  or  cold  should  be  avoided. 
Rubber  boots  or  shoes  should  never  be 
dried  by  placing  them  near  a  heater  of  any 
kind.  If  left  near  a  stove,  register,  or 
radiator,  the  rubber  is  liable  to  dry  and 
crack.  If  left  out  of  doors  in  winter, 
or  in  an  extremely  cold  place,  they  will 
freeze.  Then  when  the  warm  foot  is  put 
into  them  and  the  rubbers  are  worn,  the 
rubber  will  crack. 

Oil,  grease,  milk,  or  blood  will  cause 
rubber  to  decay  in  a  very  short  time.  If 
spattered  with  any  of  these,  the  rubber 
should  be  promptly  and  thoroughly  cleaned 
with  warm  water  and  soap. 

The  oil  in  leather  tops  will  rot  rubber, 
so  that  care  should  be  taken  in  storing  and 
packing  to  prevent  the  leather  and  rubber 
from  coming  in  contact. 

[  240  ] 


o 

o3 


02 

O 

•  i-H 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

Various  heavy  goods  are  advertised  as 
proof  against  snagging.  It  should  be  re- 
membered, however,  that  no  rubber  can  be 
made  strong  enough  to  be  absolutely  proof 
against  tearing  or  puncturing  by  extremely 
sharp  edges,  such  as  stiff  stubble,  sharp- 
edged  rocks,  broken  glass,  etc. 

Mud,  barnyard  dirt,  or  filth  of  any  kind 
should  never  be  allowed  to  dry  on  rubbers. 
They  should  be  cleaned  as  carefully  as 
leather  boots  or  shoes. 

Exposure  to  strong  sunlight  for  any 
length  of  time  produces  an  effect  on  rubbers 
similar  to  that  of  putting  them  near  a  stove 
or  radiator.  Rubbers  should  not  be  left 
in  the  sun  to  dry.  When  not  in  use  they 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 

Rubber  Heels 

Rubber  heels  are  generally  made  for 
boots  and  shoes  as  follows.  The  com- 
pounded rubber  is   sheeted  on  a  calender 

[241] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

roll,  on  a  drum,  until  several  layers  are 
obtained,  thus  making  a  sheet  of  about  one 
inch  in  thickness.  The  heel  is  cut  out  from 
this  sheet  by  means  of  a  die  and  placed  in  a 
mold.  It  is  there  subjected  to  an  extremely 
high  pressure,  generally  obtained  by  hy- 
draulic power.  The  plates  of  the  press 
are  heated  with  live  steam.  The  heels  are 
removed  at  the  end  of  nine  or  ten  minutes 
and  the  sheet  which  was  formerly  nearly  an 
inch  in  thickness  is  now  only  about  half 
an  inch  and  has  by  pressure  been  molded 
into  the  shape  of  the  heel  desired,  is  semi  or 
partially  vulcanized,  and  also  is  imprinted 
upon  the  bottom  with  the  name  or  other 
brand  of  the  company. 

The  cup-shaped  portion  of  the  heel  is  now 
coated  with  a  layer  of  rubber  cement,  and 
firmly  placed  on  the  boot  ready  to  go  to 
the  vulcanizer,  where  vulcanizing  of  the 
heel  is  then  completed. 

Many  articles  of  rubber  are  vulcanized  by 
the  use  of  chloride  of  sulphur,  which  process 

[242] 


-h2 

CO 


r— H 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

is  sometimes  known  as  "cold  cure."  The 
action  of  sulphur  chloride  itself  is  so  violent 
that  it  must  be  diluted,  and  for  this  purpose 
carbon  bisulfide  is  often  used.  In  some 
cases,  as,  for  example,  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco  pouches,  the  articles  are  submerged 
for  from  one  to  two  minutes  in  the  liquid, 
then  removed  and  washed  thoroughly.  In 
another  case,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  some 
kinds  of  rubber  cloth,  such  as  hospital 
sheeting,  the  coated  cloth  is  suspended  in 
a  suitable  room  and  the  chloride  of  sulphur 
and  carbon  bisulfide  mixed  and  evaporated 
by  action  of  heat  so  that  the  cloth  is  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  vapor  alone.  Only 
articles  with  comparatively  thin  walls  can 
be  successfully  vulcanized  by  the  cold  cure, 
as  at  best  the  vulcanizing  action  of  the 
chloride  is  only  superficial. 

No  account  of  vulcanization  processes  as 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber 
goods  is  complete  without  the  mention  of 
*' steam  cure."     A  great  variety  of  rubber 

[  243  ] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

goods  under  the  general  term  of  mechanical 
sundries  are  cured  by  this  method.  This 
includes  rubber  matting,  door  mats,  water 
bottles,  druggists'  sundries,  etc.  This  pro- 
cess consists  in  brief  of  submitting  the 
articles  to  be  vulcanized  to  the  action  of 
live  steam  for  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour, 
or  until  the  goods  are  thoroughly  vulcanized. 
The  temperature  and  duration  of  time  re- 
quired depend  to  a  considerable  extent 
upon  the  thickness  of  the  walls  of  the 
article.  In  order  to  prevent  the  goods 
from  being  pitted  and  damaged  by  the 
action  of  steam,  they  are  wrapped  with 
cloth  or  imbedded  in  pans  of  soapstone. 
A  great  variety  of  rubber  tubing  is  cured 
by  this  method. 

In  rubber  cloth  making,  the  crude  rubber 
is  put  through  the  washing  process,  dried 
and  mixed  with  sulphur,  litharge,  coloring 
matter,  etc.,  and  then  is  taken  to  the  cement 
room,  where  it  is  "cut"  with  naphtha, 
forming  a  thick  paste  or  dough.     This  is 

[244] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

taken  to  the  spreading  room  in  large  tubs 
and  fed  into  the  roller  machine,  which  is 
like  a  long  table  made  of  steam  pipes 
placed  horizontally  in  a  single  layer.  Below 
one  end  is  a  roll  of  cloth,  which  is  passed 
between  two  iron  rollers  on  the  end.  The 
dough  is  fed  in  between  these  rollers  and 
is  spread  smoothly  over  the  cloth,  which  is 
rolled  up  and  removed  to  a  heating  room, 
where  it  is  unrolled  and  hung  on  racks,  and 
then  subjected  to  sufficient  heat  to  cause 
the  combination  of  the  sulphur  and  rubber. 

Chemistry  in  the  Manufacture  of 
Rubber  Goods 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the 
importance  in  all  rubber  factories  of  the 
chemical  department.  During  the  last  two 
or  three  years  there  has  been  an  unusual 
development  along  these  lines,  and  to-day 
no  factory  for  the  manufacture  of  rubber 
goods  is  complete  that  does  not  possess  a 

[  245  ] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

well-equipped  laboratory.  Not  only  does 
this  department  enable  the  manufacturer 
to  control  the  purity  and  uniformity  of 
his  compounding  ingredients  and  the  innu- 
merable grades  of  crude  rubber,  but,  what 
is  of  even  greater  importance,  it  enables 
him  to  inaugurate  research  work  as  applied 
to  his  particular  line  of  manufacture.  This 
part  of  laboratory  work  is  already  producing 
results  not  only  of  scientific  interest,  but 
of  very  great  practical  and  economic  value. 
Still  another  role  of  the  modern  chemical 
laboratory  is  to  exercise  a  control  over  the 
finished  material,  so  that  the  manager  of 
the  works  may  be  in  possession  daily  of 
reasons  for  any  variation  detrimental  to 
the  standard  of  his  products. 

Rubber  Terms 

Ankle  Piece.  A  large  piece  of  light 
sheeted  gum,  which  goes  around  the  ankle 
and  extends  about  halfway  up  the  leg. 

[  246  ] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

Back  Stay.  A  piece  of  frictioned  sheet- 
ing similar  to  the  side  stay  in  shape  and 
placed  at  the  back  of  the  heel  and  ankle. 

Gum  Counter.  A  piece  cut  out  of 
sheeted  gum,  on  the  under  side  of  which  is 
placed  a  counter  form  or  a  piece  of  fric- 
tioned sheeting. 

Outer  Filler.  A  filling  sole  cut  from 
rag-coated  or  frictioned  sheeting,  and  de- 
signed to  fill  up  the  hollow  on  the  bottom 
caused  by  bringing  the  edges  of  the  gum 
vamp  and  counter  underneath. 

Inner  Sole.  Usually  made  of  felt  or 
sheeting  coated  on  one  side  with  rag  stock. 
In  lasting  up,  the  bottom  edges  of  the  lin- 
ing (which  have  previously  been  cemented) 
are  pulled  under  and  adhere  to  the  inner 
sole. 

Leg  Cover.  A  piece  of  sheeted  gum 
rolled  upon  a  piece  of  frictioned  sheeting 
called  the  leg  form. 

Leg  Lining.  The  lining,  usually  of  felt 
or  wool  netting,  for  the  leg. 

[  247  ] 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

Para.  A  name  given  to  rubber  from 
Brazil. 

Piping.  Strips  of  f rictioned  sheeting  used 
to  join  the  lining  together  over  the  instep 
and  up  the  back,  and  also  to  hold  the 
lining  up  on  the  tree  by  passing  a  strip  over 
the  top. 

Rag  Counter.  Quarter  stiff  is  a  counter 
piece  cut  out  of  rag-coated  or  frictioned 
sheeting,  which  gives  stiffness  to  the 
counter. 

Side  Stay.  A  spike-shaped  piece  of 
frictioned  sheeting,  placed  on  each  side  of 
the  ankle. 

Rag  Sole.  A  sole  stiffening  cut  out  of 
a  sheet  of  rag  stock,  which  covers  the  whole 
bottom.  The  edges  are  skived  to  make  a 
perfect  edge. 

Toe  Filler.  A  rag-stock  filling  sole 
to  fill  up  the  hollow  on  the  bottom  caused 
by  attaching  the  lining  to  the  inner  sole. 

Toe  Lining.  The  lining  for  the  vamp, 
of  the  same  material  as  the  leg  lining. 

[248] 


LOOP  STRAPS.^  LEG  LINING 


GUM 
COUNTER] 


COUNTER 


LEG  COVER 


SIDE  STAY 


Parts  of  a  Rubber  Boot. 


RUBBER  SHOE  MANUFACTURE 

Vamp.     A  piece  cut  out  of  sheeted  gum. 

Vamp  Form.  -  A  piece  of  frictioned  sheet- 
ing cut  to  the  shape  of  the  vamp,  and  put 
on  over  the  toe  hning. 

Web  Straps.  Straps  put  on  with  the 
joined  ends  between  the  leg  hning  and  the 
leg  cover,  and  forming  a  loop  on  the  inside 
of  the  boot  to  pull  it  on  with. 


[249] 


CHAPTER  TWELVE 

HISTORY    OF    FOOTWEAR 

WE  find  that  primitive  footwear,  in 
common  with  all  other  beginnings, 
was  of  the  crudest  nature  and  took  the 
form  of  the  simple  sandal.  It  is  probable 
that  man  first  protected  his  foot  from 
the  rough  way  by  simple  pieces  of  hide, 
which  were  bound  to  the  bottom  of  the 
foot.  The  sandal,  among  the  most  primi- 
tive, is  the  type  of  footwear  worn  to-day. 
The  sandal  was  simply  bound  to  the  foot 
by  thongs  of  hides,  which  were  brought 
between  the  toes  and  tied  around  the  ankle. 
At  about  the  Elizabethan  period,  shoe- 
making  had  really  become  a  very  fine  art. 
Some  foot  creations  were  made  by  the 
Court  shoemakers  that  reflected  the  indi- 
vidual taste  of  the  monarch,  and  so  great 
was  the  competition  to  produce  something 

[250] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

novel  that  very  often  the  styles  assumed  a 
grotesque  aspect.  The  toes  were  elongated 
so  that  sometimes  they  were  carried  up  and 
fastened  by  cords  and  tassels  to  the  tops 
of  the  shoes,  and  it  finally  became  necessary 
to  enact  a  law  to  prevent  such  outrageous 
types  of  footwear.  The  slippers  of  this 
period  were  of  the  extremely  high-heeled 
variety,  and  small  fortunes  were  often 
spent  on  their  ornamentation.  They  were 
mostly  of  the  turn-shoe  type,  and  samples 
which  are  preserved  show  the  excellent 
workmanship  that  was  in  vogue  at  that 
time. 

We  now  come  to  the  first  shoemaker  in 
America.  W^hen  the  Mayflower  made  the 
second  trip  to  America,  she  carried  among 
others  a  shoemaker  named  Thomas  Beard, 
who  brought  with  him  a  supply  of  hides. 
Seven  years  afterwards  there  arrived  one 
Phillip  Kertland,  a  native  of  Buckingham- 
shire, who  settled  in  Lynn  in  1636. 

Kertland  was  the  pioneer  shoemaker  of 

[  ^51  ] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

Lynn  and  for  years  he  successfully  worked 
at  his  craft,  teaching  others  his  methods 
and  ways,  so  that  fifteen  years  after  his 
arrival,  Lynn  was  not  only  supplying  the 
requirements  of  its  inhabitants,  but  was 
also  sending  a  part  of  its  products  to  the 
port  of  Boston.  As  early  as  1648  we  find 
tanning  and  shoemaking  mentioned  as  an 
industry  of  the  colony  of  Virginia,  special 
mention  being  made  of  the  fact  that  a 
planter  named  Matthews  employed  eight 
shoemakers  on  his  premises.  Legal  re- 
straint was  placed  on  the  cordwainer  in 
Connecticut  in  1656,  and  in  Rhode  Island 
in  1706,  while  in  New  York  the  business  of. 
tanning  and  shoemaking  is  known  to  have 
been  firmly  established  previous  to  the 
capitulation  of  the  Province  to  England  in 
1664.  In  1698  the  industry  was  carried 
on  profitably  in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1721 
the  Colonial  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania 
passed  an  act  regulating  the  material  and 
the  prices  of  the  boot  and  shoe  industry. 

[  252  ] 


fflSTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

Prior  to  1815  most  of  the  shoes  were 
hand  sewed,  a  few  having  been  copper 
nailed.  The  heavier  shoes  were  welted  and 
the  lighter  ones  turned.  This  method  of 
manufacture  was  changed,  about  the  year 
1815,  by  the  adoption  of  the  wooden  shoe 
peg,  which  was  invented  in  1811  and  soon 
came  into  general  use.  Up  to  this  time 
little  or  no  progress  had  been  made  in  the 
methods  of  manufacture.  The  shoemaker 
sat  on  his  bench,  and  with  scarcely  any 
other  instrument  than  a  hammer,  knife, 
and  wooden  shoulder  stick,  cut,  stitched, 
hammered,  and  sewed  until  the  shoe  was 
completed.  Previous  to  the  year  1845, 
which  marked  the  first  successful  applica- 
tion of  machinery  to  American  shoemaking, 
this  industry  was  in  the  strictest  sense  a 
hand  process,  and  the  young  man  who 
chose  it  for  his  vocation  was  apprenticed  for 
seven  years,  during  which  time  he  was 
taught  every  detail  of  the  art.  He  was 
instructed  in  the  preparation  of  the  insole 

[  253  ] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

and  outsole,  depending  almost  entirely 
upon  his  eye  for  the  proper  proportions; 
taught  to  prepare  pegs  and  drive  them, 
for  the  pegged  shoe  was  the  common  type 
of  footwear  in  the  first  half  of  the  last 
century;  and  familiarized  himself  with  the 
making  of  turned  and  welt  shoes,  which 
have  always  been  considered  the  highest 
types  of  shoemaking,  as  they  require  excep- 
tional skill  of  the  artisan  in  channeling  the 
insole  and  outsole  by  hand,  rounding 
the  sole,  sewing  the  w^elt,  and  stitching 
the  outsole.  After  having  served  his 
apprenticeship,  it  was  the  custom  for  the 
full-fledged  shoemaker  to  start  on  what 
was  known  as  "whipping  the  cat,"  which 
meant  traveling  from  town  to  town,  living 
with  a  family  while  making  a  year's  supply 
of  shoes  for  each  member,  then  moving  on 
to  fill  engagements  previously  made. 

The  change, from  which  has  been  evolved 
our  present  factory  system  began  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  18th  century,  when  a  system  of 

[254] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

sizes  had  been  drafted,  and  shoemakers  more 
enterprising  than  their  fellows  gathered 
about  them  groups  of  workmen,  and  took 
upon  themselves  the  dignity  of  manufac- 
turers. 

It  was  soon  found  that  the  master  work- 
man could  largely  increase  his  income  by 
employing  other  men  to  do  the  work  while 
he  directed  their  efforts,  and  this  gradually 
led  to  a  division  of  the  labor:  the  shoe 
uppers,  which  had  prior  to  this  time  been 
sewed  by  men  using  waxed  thread  with 
bristles,  now  were  done  by  women,  who 
often  took  the  work  home. 

One  workman  cut  the  leather,  others 
sewed  the  uppers,  and  still  others  fastened 
uppers  to  soles,  each  workman  handling 
only  one  part  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

We  find  that  in  the  year  1795  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  factory  system  had  reached  a 
stage  where  in  Lynn  alone  there  were  two 
hundred  master  workmen,  employing  six 
hundred  journeymen  and  turning  out  three 

[255] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

hundred  thousand  pairs  of  shoes  per  year. 
The  entire  shoe  was  then  made  under  one 
roof,  and  generally  from  leather  that  was 
tanned  on  the  premises. 

Factory  buildings  were  not  at  this  time 
of  a  very  pretentious  nature  and  did  not 
by  any  means  represent  the  amount  of 
work  undertaken  by  the  proprietor;  for 
the  small  ten  by  ten  factories,  which  are 
even  to-day  in  existence  in  some  of  the 
backyards  of  Lynn  homes,  came  into 
existence  at  this  time.  Many  farmers 
found  that  shoemaking  was  a  remunerative 
occupation  in  the  winter,  and  they,  and 
perhaps  their  neighbors,  gathered  in  these 
shops  and  took  from  the  different  factories 
shoes  on  which  to  fasten  the  soles,  or 
uppers  to  bind,  which,  after  completion  of 
the  work,  were  returned  to  the  factory, 
where  they  were  finished  and  sent  to  market 
packed  in  wooden  boxes.  It  was  in  this 
way  that  the  industry  prospered  and  devel- 
oped up  to  the  period  of  the  introduction 

[256] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

of  machines,  which  happened  but  a  httle 
over  half  a  century  ago. 

Up  to  the  year  1811  absolutely  no 
machinery  was  used  in  the  making  of  shoes. 
This  year  shoe  pegs  were  invented  and  a 
machine  for  making  them.  The  pegged 
shoe  became  very  widely  worn,  but  it  was 
not  until  1835  that  any  machine  for  driving 
pegs  was  made,  and  even  at  this  time  the 
machine  was  but  an  indifferent  success. 
It  was  a  hand  machine  and  its  work  was 
by  no  means  of  a  reliable  nature. 

The  first  machine  to  be  widely  accepted 
by  the  trade  was  the  "rolling  machine." 
This  was  used  for  rolling  the  sole  leather 
under  pressure,  and  it  is  said  that  a  man 
could  perform  in  a  minute  with  this  machine 
the  same  office  that  he  would  have  required 
half  an  hour  to  have  performed  with  the 
old-fashioned  lapstone  and  hammer.  This 
was  followed  in  1848  by  the  most  important 
invention,  the  "sewing  machine,"  which 
was  perfected  by  Elias  Howe,  and  was  soon 

[  257  ] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

followed  by  a  machine  which  sewed  with 
waxed  thread  and  made  it  possible  to  sew 
the  uppers  of  shoes  in  a  much  more  rapid, 
reliable,  and  satisfactory  manner  than  had 
ever  been  done  by  hand.  This,  too,  was 
soon  followed  by  a  machine  which  split  the 
sole  leather  and  by  another  for  buffing  or 
removing  the  grain. 

In  1855  William  F.  Trowbridge,  who  was 
a  partner  in  the  firm  of  F.  Brigham  & 
Company,  of  Feltonville,  Massachusetts, 
then  a  part  of  Marlboro,  conceived  the  idea 
of  driving  by  horse  power  the  machines  then 
in  use.  The  introduction  of  power  became 
very  general,  so  that  in  the  year  1860  there 
were  scarcely  any  factories  which  were  not 
driven  by  either  steam  or  water  power. 

The  year  1858  was  marked  by  the  inven- 
tion by  Lyman  R.  Blake  of  the  McKay 
sewing  machine,  which  probably  more  than 
any  other  has  exerted  a  revolutionary  effect 
on  the  industry. 

The  McKay  machine  did  not  at  this  time 

[258] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

sew  the  toe  or  heel ;  the  sewing  w^as  started 
at  the  shank  and  carried  forward  to  a 
point  near  the  toe  on  one  side,  and  the  same 
operation  repeated  on  the  other  side;  but 
it  seemed  to  possess  great  possibihties  and 
created  a  great  deal  of  interest  throughout 
the  trade.  It  was,  of  course,  a  very  crude 
machine  and  very  different  from  the  McKay 
machine  of  to-day.  It  was  set  on  a  bench 
and  the  shoe  to  be  sewed  was  placed  over 
a  horn,  and  the  sewing  was  done  from  the 
channel  in  the  outsole  through  the  sole 
and  insole.  Colonel  McKay  immediately 
started  to  improve  the  machine.  He  em- 
ployed skilled  mechanics  to  work  on  it 
and  attempted  to  introduce  it  in  different 
factories,  but  encountered  a  great  deal  of 
opposition  and  criticism  in  regard  to  its 
future.  It  is  said  that  he  offered  to  dispose 
of  the  machine  to  the  shoemakers  of  Lynn 
and  allow  them  its  exclusive  use  if  they 
would  pay  him  three  hundred  thousand 
dollars,  an  offer  which  was  not  accepted. 

[259] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

The  machine  left  a  loop  stitch  and  a 
ridge  of  thread  on  the  inside  of  the  shoe, 
but  it  filled  the  great  demand  that  existed 
for  sewed  shoes,  and  many  hundreds  of 
millions  of  pairs  have  been  made  by  its  use. 

While  Colonel  McKay  had  met  rebuff 
and  discouragement  in  attempting  to  intro- 
duce his  machine,  the  public  necessity  was 
such  that  manufacturers  were  obliged  to 
take  it  up  immediately ;  but  Colonel  McKay 
was  still  embarrassed  by  lack  of  capital  to 
carry  on  his  rapidly  increasing  business. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  a  system  of  placing 
machines  in  factories,  which  system  has 
proven  to  be  the  most  potent  factor  in  the 
upbuilding  of  the  shoe  industry,  was  started. 
This  was  a  royalty  system,  whereby  the 
machine  or  machine  owner  participated  in 
the  profits  accruing  from  the  use  of  the 
machine. 

It  hardly  seems  that  there  can  be  any 
question  as  to  the  principle  of  royalty  being 
one  of  the  greatest  forces  in  building  up 

[260] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

the  successful  industry  which  we  have 
to-day ;  it  afforded  an  easy  means  whereby 
machines  could  be  introduced  without  en- 
tailing hardships  on  the  manufacturers,  who, 
had  they  been  obliged  to  pay  the  actual 
worth  of  the  machines,  would  have  been 
entirely  unable  to  adopt  them.  Instances 
are  known  where  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  dollars  were  spent  on  machines,  which 
machines  were  abandoned  without  having 
made  a  single  shoe. 

At  the  time  of  the  introduction  of  the 
McKay  machine,  inventors  were  busy  in 
other  directions,  and  as  a  result,  came  the 
introduction  of  the  " cable  nailing  machine." 
This  was  provided  with  a  cable  of  nails,  the 
head  of  one  being  joined  to  the  point  of 
another;  these  the  machines  cut  into 
separate  nails  and  drove  automatically. 
At  about  this  time  also  was  introduced  the 
"screw  machine,"  which  formed  a  screw 
from  brass  wire,  forcing  it  into  the  leather 
and  cutting  it  off  automatically.     This  was 

[261] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

the  prototype  of  the  "rapid  standard  screw 
machine,"  which  is  a  comparatively  recent 
invention,  and  is  very  widely  used  at  the 
present  time  as  a  sole  fastener  on  the 
heavier  class  of  boots  and  shoes.  Very 
soon  thereafter  the  attention  of  the  trade 
was  attracted  to  the  invention  of  a  New 
York  mechanic  for  the  sewing  of  soles. 
The  device  was  particularly  intended  for 
the  making  of  turn  shoes  and  afterwards 
became  famous  as  the  ''Goodyear  turn 
shoe  machine." 

Closely  following  the  Goodyear  invention 
came  the  introduction  of  the  first  machine 
used  in  connection  with  heeling,  —  a 
machine  which  compressed  the  heel  and 
pricked  holes  for  the  nails ;  this  was  soon 
followed  by  a  machine  which  automatically 
drove  the  nails,  the  heel  having  previously 
been  put  in  place  and  held  by  the  guides  on 
the  machine.  Other  improvements  in  heel- 
ing machines  followed  with  considerable 
rapidity,    and   a   machine    came   into    use 

[262] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

shortly  afterwards  which  not  only  nailed 
the  heel,  but  which  was  also  provided  with 
a  hand  trimmer,  which  the  operator  swung 
round  the  heel,  after  nailing.  From  these 
have  been  evolved  the  heeling  machines 
in  use  at  the  present  time. 

One  of  the  early  uses  to  which  the  sewing 
machine  was  put  was  the  sewing  together 
of  the  pieces  of  soft  and  pliable  leather  which 
make  the  upper  of  a  shoe  —  a  simple  thing, 
involving  only  a  slight  adjustment  of  the 
original  machine.  It  is  a  far  more  compli- 
cated operation  to  sew  the  upper  to  the 
thick  and  heavy  sole,  and  years  passed  by 
before  the  secret  was  discovered,  and  the 
McKay  machine  appeared.  In  the  shoe 
sewed  on  the  McKay  machine,  the  thread 
ran  through  into  the  inside  of  the  inner  sole, 
leaving  a  rasping  ridge  on  which  the  stocking 
of  the  wearer  rubbed.  The  McKay  shoe 
displaced  only  the  coarser  grades.  The 
hand-sewed  shoe  remained  the  favorite 
of    wealth    and    fashion,    and    was    worn 

[263] 


fflSTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

exclusively  by  those  who  cared  for  comfort 
and  could  afford  the  price.  In  sewing  a 
shoe  by  hand,  a  thin  and  narrow  strip  of 
leather,  called  a  welt,  is  first  sewed  to  the 
insole  and  upper,  and  the  heavy  outsole 
is  sewed  to  this  welt,  so  that  the  stitches 
come  outside  and  do  not  touch  the  foot, 
the  insole  being  left  entirely  smooth.  It 
is  a  delicate  operation  by  hand,  and  many 
years  elapsed  before  a  machine  was  con- 
trived by  which  it  could  be  done.  At  last 
the  problem  was  solved.  The  "Goodyear 
welting  and  stitching  machines"  appeared 
—  so  named  for  Charles  Goodyear,  who 
financed  and  perfected  them,  a  son  of  the 
man  who  taught  the  world  the  use  of  rubber. 
These  two  machines  are  the  nucleus  of  the 
Goodyear  welt  system,  to  which  must  be 
attributed  the  revolution  of  an  industry. 
Although  they  are  entirely  distinct  machines, 
they  are  inseparable,  for  neither  can  be  used 
effectively  without  the  other  in  making  the 
modern  Goodyear  welt  shoe. 

[264] 


Inside  Channel 


W^  Shoulder 


Rib  or  between  Substance 


Feather^ 


Insole  for  Hand  Sewed  Shoe. 


INSIDE  Channel 


Insole 


WELT 


Hand  Sewed  Seam 


Last 

UPPER 


Hand  Sewed  Shoe. 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

Much  of  the  style  of  a  shoe  depends  upon 
the  wooden  last  over  which  the  upper  is 
shaped  before  being  attached  to  the  sole. 
To  find  a  substitute  for  the  human  hand  in 
fitting  the  shoe  to  the  last  and  pulling  the 
leather  over  its  delicate  lines  and  curves 
seemed  for  a  long  time  impossible. 

This  took  place  in  the  early  seventies, 
when  a  machine  was  invented  for  doing  this 
work.  It  created  a  great  change  in  a  de- 
partment of  shoemaking  which,  prior  to  this 
time,  had  been  regarded  as  a  confirmed  hand 
process.  This  machine,  as  well  as  those 
which  followed  afterwards  for  a  period  of 
twenty  years,  was  known  as  the  best  type 
of  machine,  by  which  the  shoe  upper  was 
drawn  over  the  last  by  either  friction  or 
pincers,  and  then  tacked  by  use  of  a  hand 
tool. 

At  a  comparatively  recent  period  another 
machine  which  revolutionized  all  previous 
ideas  in  lasting  was  introduced.  This 
machine  is  generally  in  use  at  the  present 

[  ^65  ] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

time,  and  is  known  as  the  "consolidated 
hand  method  lasting  machine."  It  was 
fitted  with  pincers,  which  automatically 
drew  the  leather  round  the  last,  at  the  same 
time  driving  a  tack  which  held  it  in  place. 
This  machine  has  been  so  developed  that 
it  is  now  used  for  the  lasting  of  shoes  of 
every  type,  from  the  lowest  and  cheapest 
to  the  highest  grade,  and  it  is  a  machine 
that  shows  wonderful  mechanical  ingenuity. 
The  perfection  of  the  lasting  machine  has 
been  followed  recently  by  the  introduction 
of  a  machine  which  performs  in  a  satisfac- 
tory way  the  difiicult  process  known  as 
"pulling  over,"  which  consists  of  accurately 
centering  the  shoe  upper  on  the  last  and 
securing  it  temporarily  in  position  for  the 
work  of  lasting.  The  new  machine,  which 
is  known  as  the  "hand-method  pulling  over 
machine,"  is  provided  with  pincers,  which 
close  automatically,  gripping  the  shoe  upper 
at  sides  and  toe.  It  is  fitted  with  adjust- 
ments by  which  the  operator  is  enabled  to 

[266] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

quickly  center  the  shoe  upper  on  the  last, 
and,  on  pressure  of  a  foot  lever,  the  machine 
automatically  draws  the  upper  closely  to 
the  last  and  secures  it  in  position  by  tacks, 
which  are  also  driven  by  the  machine.  The 
introduction  of  this  machine  marked  a 
radical  change  in  the  one  important  shoe- 
making  process  that  had  up  to  this  time 
successfully  withstood  all  attempts  at 
mechanical  improvement. 

At  about  the  time  that  lasting  w^as  first 
introduced,  came  the  machines  which  were 
used  for  finishing  heel  and  fore  part.  These 
machines  were  fitted  with  a  tool,  which  was 
heated  by  gas  and  which  practically  dupli- 
cated the  hand  workman  in  rubbing  the 
edges  with  a  hot  tool  for  the  purpose  of 
finishing  them.  From  these  early  machines 
have  been  evolved  the  "edge-setting  ma- 
chines" wiiich  are  in  use  at  present. 

Thus,  one  after  another,  every  operation 
has  yielded  to  invention,  until  very  recently 
the   only   remaining   process   was   subdued 

[  267  ] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

when  a  machine  for  cutting  uppers  was 
devised.  There  are  machines  for  shaping, 
compressing,  and  naihng  heels ;  for  attach- 
ing soles  to  uppers  in  heavy  shoes  by  wooden 
pegs  or  copper  screws  and  wires ;  for  round- 
ing, buffing,  and  polishing  the  soles;  for 
trimming  and  setting  the  edges  of  the  sole; 
for  performing  innumerable  operations,  some 
seemingly  trivial,  but  all  essential  to  per- 
fection in  comfort,  durability  or  style; 
so  that  in  shoe  factories  to-day  a  greater 
variety  of  intricate  and  expensive  ma- 
chines is  used  than  in  factories  of  any 
other  kind. 

At  the  present  time  the  genius  of  the 
American  inventor  has  provided  for  every 
detail  of  shoemaking,  even  the  smallest 
processes  being  performed  by  mechanical 
devices  of  some  kind.  This  has  naturally 
made  the  shoemaker  of  to-day  a  specialist, 
who  very  seldom  knows  anything  of  shoe- 
making  apart  from  the  particular  process 
in  the  performance  of  shoemaking  of  which 

[268] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

he  is  an  adept,  and  from  which  he  earns 
a  hvehhood.  The  American  shoe  of  to-day 
is  the  standard  production  of  the  world. 
It  is  in  demand  wherever  shoes  are  worn. 

In  the  year  1874  there  had  been  per- 
fected not  only  the  machines  which  Colonel 
McKay  and  Mr.  Goodyear  had  been  instru- 
mental in  building,  but  other  inventors  had 
introduced  similar  machines  for  doing  simi- 
lar work.  This  brought  about  the  most 
acute  business  competition,  and  finally 
resulted  in  many  cases  where  one  machine 
manufacturer  alleged  that  the  other  machine 
infringed  his  rights  of  patent,  and  in  many 
other  cases  the  fiercest  kind  of  litigation 
was  established.  This  had  a  most  disas- 
trous effect  upon  shoe  manufacturers,  for 
in  many  cases  the  manufacturer  was  made 
to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  blows  which 
contending  shoe  machinery  manufacturers 
aimed  at  each  other. 

Machines  in  use  in  factories  were  stopped 
by  means  of  injunctions  ;  damage  suits  were 

[269] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

entered,  and  litigation  was  very  general. 
During  the  year  1899,  there  was  ushered  in 
one  of  the  most  important  events  that  ever 
transpired  in  the  history  of  shoemaking. 
The  most  important  of  the  concerns  which 
had  been  making  war  upon  each  other 
were  purchased  by  one  large  company  and 
brought  under  one  harmonious  management. 
The  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company 
owes  its  origin  to  a  call  for  a  change  in  condi- 
tions menacing  the  industry  of  making  shoes 
which  could  not  be  ignored.  It  was  created 
by  combining  into  one  the  three  companies 
existing  in  1899:  the  Goodyear  Sewing  Ma- 
chine Company,  the  Consolidated  &  McKay 
Lasting  Machine  Company,  and  the  McKay 
Shoe  Machinery  Company,  each  of  which 
respectively  made  and  leased  machines 
adapted  to  a  particular  class  of  operations. 
The  principal  machines  which  each  made 
did  not  interfere  with  the  principal  machines 
of  any  other.  They  were  dependent  links 
in    an    industrial    chain.     The    Goodyear 

[270]  I 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

Sewing  Machine  Company  chiefly  made 
machines  for  sewing  the  sole  to  the  upper  in 
welt  shoes  and  various  auxiliary  machines 
which  helped  to  complete  the  shoe ;  The 
Consolidated  &  McKay  Lasting  Machine 
Company  made  machines  for  lasting  a 
shoe;  The  McKay  Shoe  Machinery  Com- 
pany made  various  machines  for  attaching 
soles  and  heels  by  metallic  fastenings,  and 
furnished  material  for  that  purpose.  A 
single  manufacturer,  in  order  to  make 
Goodyear  welt  shoes,  would  be  compelled 
to  patronize  all  the  companies,  going  to 
each  of  them  for  that  part  of  his  equipment 
which  it  exclusively  supplied.  Each  com- 
pany had  its  agents  in  factories  looking 
after  its  machines. 

The  gathering  of  these  three  companies 
into  a  single  organization  wrought  an  in- 
stant change.  It  resulted  immediately  in 
greater  economy  of  administration;  in  re- 
lieving the  manufacturer  of  the  vexation  of 
sometimes  seeing  his  factory  crippled  while 

[271] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

orders  were  piling  up ;  in  freeing  him  from 
the  annoyance  and  expense  of  deaHng  with 
several  different  concerns  in  order  to  get 
his  most  important  machines  and  keep 
them  in  repair. 

The  attention  which  had  been  paid  to 
royalty  machines  and  which  had  been  such 
an  important  factor  in  building  up  the 
industry  in  America,  was  magnified  by 
the  management  of  the  new  company. 
Large  forces  of  men  and  expert  machinists, 
as  well  as  expert  shoemakers,  were  main- 
tained in  the  different  districts  where  shoes 
were  made,  and  every  effort  exerted  to 
promote  the  growth  of  the  industry. 

While  the  royalty  system  proved  to  be 
of  great  advantage  to  small  shoe  manufac- 
turers, the  largest  manufacturers  objected 
to  paying  royalty  on  machines  and  desired 
to  purchase  them  outright.  Being  unable 
to  do  so,  they  placed  experts  at  work  to 
invent  similar  machines.  This  has  resulted 
in  the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company 

[  272  ] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

claiming  that  these  machines  are  infringe- 
ments and  causing  considerable  litigation. 

If  one  reviews  the  history  of  the  trade 
during  the  past  ten  years,  there  will  be 
little  question  but  that  one  will  find  it  has 
been  a  period  of  the  greatest  advancement 
that  the  trade  has  ever  known. 

Within  the  time  of  those  who  read  these 
words,  the  way  to  make  a  shoe  has  been 
completely  changed.  Methods  which  held 
their  own  for  centuries  have  disappeared, 
to  be  replaced  by  processes  which  only  re- 
cently would  have  been  thought  impossible, 
and  which  have  brought  within  the  reach 
of  men  of  modest  means  a  luxury  once 
enjoyed  exclusively  by  the  well-to-do.  The 
feet  of  the  million  are  clad  to-day  as  finely 
as  the  feet  of  yesterday's  millionaire.  Shoes 
marked  by  comfort,  durability,  and  style 
have  driven  to  historical  museums  the  stiff 
and  clumsy  boots  and  brogans  which  not 
so  many  years  ago  were  worn  by  those  who 
could  not  pay  to  have  shoes  sewed  by  hand. 

[  273  ] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

The  American  people  spend  more  than 
three  hundred  miUion  dollars  every  year 
in  buying  shoes,  and  average  three  pairs 
apiece,  and  yet  few  ever  think  about  their 
shoes  so  long  as  they  do  not  look  clumsy,  or 
wear  out  too  quickly,  or  hurt  the  foot. 
Every  one  likes  to  buy  good  shoes  as 
cheaply  as  he  can,  and  every  one  likes  to 
feel  that  shoe  manufacturers  are  independ- 
ent and  successful,  and  that  workmen  get 
good  wages,  because  these  things  help  along 
prosperity ;  but  that  is  all.  Yet  here  is  an 
industry  in  which  the  United  States  within 
a  decade  has  come  to  lead  the  world,  and 
there  are  many  things  about  it  which  it 
would  be  worth  while  for  every  one  to  under- 
stand. It  is  worth  while,  for  instance,  to 
know  that  there  is  no  important  operation 
on  a  shoe  which  need  be  done  by  hand; 
that  in  the  making  of  every  good  shoe  no 
less  than  fifty-eight  different  machines,  and 
sometimes  twice  that  number,  are  brought 
into  play;    that  nearly  all  these  machines 

[  274  ] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

are  of  American  invention ;  and  that  they 
have  been  so  perfectly  adjusted  one  to  an- 
other that  they  work  together  almost  with 
the  precision  of  a  watch ;  it  is  worth  while 
to  know  something  about  the  marvelous 
system  under  the  encouragement  of  which 
this  typical  American  industry  has  blos- 
somed and  borne  fruit  until  it  employs 
two  hundred  million  dollars  of  capital  and 
nearly  two  hundred  thousand  people,  and 
turns  out  two  hundred  and  fifty  million  pairs 
of  shoes  a  year;  and  why  it  is  that  the 
average  man  you  meet  to-day  has  a  better 
fitting,  better  wearing,  and  better  looking 
shoe  than  the  moneyed  man  of  yesterday — 
at  a  fraction  of  the  expense. 

This  remarkable  growth  is  distinctly 
American.  In  the  United  States  the  tend- 
ency among  the  artisan  class  has  been  to 
abandon  the  slow  hand  process.  This  tend- 
ency has  been  as  strong  as  the  tendency 
in  Europe  to  adhere  to  it.  Moreover, 
there  has   developed    among    the    laboring 

[  £75  ] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

classes  in  the  United  States  a  mobility  such 
as  is  unknown  elsewhere  in  the  world. 

Another  advantage  which  has  contributed 
to  the  rapid  development  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  shoes  in  the  United  States  is  the 
comparative  freedom  from  inherited  and 
overconservative  ideas.  This  country  has 
entered  upon  its  industrial  development 
unfettered  by  the  old  order  of  things,  and 
with  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  people 
to  seek  the  best  and  quickest  way  to 
accomplish  every  object. 

In  all  of  the  European  countries  in  which 
the  manufacturing  of  shoes  is  an  important 
industrv,  the  transition  from  the  household 
to  the  factory  system  was  hampered  by 
guilds,  elaborate  national  and  local  restric- 
tions, and  by  the  national  reluctance  with 
which  a  people  accustomed  for  generations 
to  fixed  methods  of  work,  in  which  they 
have  acquired  a  large  degree  of  skill,  aban- 
don those  methods  for  new  ones.  It  was 
natural,  also,  that  in  spite  of  the  superior 

[276] 


;-( 
o 

•*^ 
o 

CD 
O 

c3 


O 

03 


O 
O 

a 
•1—1 

o 

•  I— I 

m 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

advantages  of  machine  methods,  hand  pro- 
cess o£  manufacture  should  still  continue 
side  by  side  with  them,  in  the  European 
countries,  though  machine  work  had  long 
since  usurped  the  whole  field  of  the  shoe 
industry  in  the  United  States. 

As  an  American  goes  about  among  the 
European  shoe  factories  he  is  greatly  sur- 
prised at  the  state  of  affairs.  He  is  struck 
by  three  things  which  are  very  conspicuous. 
They  are:  (1)  Lack  of  use  of  machinery,  lack 
of  all  sorts  of  devices  in  order  to  save  hand 
labor,  which  is  carried  out  so  extensively  in 
the  United  States.  (2)  Lack  of  the  division 
of  labor,  one  factory  attempting  to  make 
four  or  five  kinds  of  shoes.  (3)  Lack  of 
methods  employed  for  handling  large  quan- 
tities of  materials. 

One  point  that  is  overlooked  in  consider- 
ing the  shoe  industries  of  the  two  countries 
is  the  great  difference  in  organization.  In 
most  European  factories,  the  manufacturer 
gets  all  the  orders  of  different  kinds,  and 

[277] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

then  attempts  to  make  one  or  two  lines  with 
one  or  two  qualities  in  the  same  factory. 
In  Switzerland  one  may  find  shoes  and 
slippers  for  men,  women,  and  children  made 
under  the  same  roof. 

In  the  United  States  the  manufacturer 
makes  a  certain  line  of  shoes  in  one  factory, 
and  no  other  kind.  If  he  has  more  than 
one  line,  he  has  more  than  one  factory,  and 
each  factory  turns  out  a  distinct  shoe  for 
a  distinct  purpose.  The  manufacturer  has 
his  salesmen  to  sell  these  shoes. 

The  advantages  of  the  American  system 
are :  (1)  The  managers  and  workers  of  a 
factory  turning  out  a  certain  line  of  goods 
become  highly  specialized  in  that  line,  and 
can  produce  better  results  than  the  workers 
in  a  factory  attempting  to  make  two  or 
three  lines  of  goods.  (2)  A  large  shoe 
factory  is  laid  out  as  a  rule  to  do  a  certain 
kind  of  work,  and  it  seldom  changes.  This 
practice  makes  possible  a  greater  produc- 
tion.    On  the  other  hand  we  have  something 

[  278  ] 


HISTORY  OF  FOOTWEAR 

16  learn  from  the  European  organization. 
American  manufacturers  must  meet  the 
foreign  trade.  In  order  to  do  this,  the  manu- 
facturer must  cater  to  the  habits,  customs, 
and  cKmatic  conditions.  The  European 
manufacturer  does  this. 


[279] 


INDEX 


Amhide,  black,  58. 

russet,  59. 
Anatomy  of  the  foot,  77,  80. 
Ankle  piece,  246. 
Assembling,  126,  177. 
Automobile  leather,  225. 

tanning  of,  226. 

Backs,  12. 

Backstay,  2,  177,  247. 
Back  strap,  177. 
BaL,  177. 
Ball,  178. 
Bating,  19. 
Beading,  178. 
Beamhouse  process,  5. 
Beating  out,  178. 
Bellows  tongue,  178. 
Belting,  62,  63,  178. 

by-products,  69. 

round,  69. 
Belt-knife  splits,  60. 
Between  substance,  178. 
Bison,  59. 
Blackball,  178. 
Black  box  chrome  side,  58. 
Black  hawk  patent,  58. 
Blacking  the  edge,  179. 
Blocking,  179. 
Bloom,  179. 
Blucher,  179. 
Boot,  180. 
Bootee,  180. 


Boris,  59. 
Bottom,  1. 

filling,  180. 

scouring,  180. 
Box  calf,  55,  180. 

toe,  181. 
Boxing,  180. 
Branded  cowhide,  9. 
Breaking  the  sole,  181. 
Breast  of  the  heel,  3. 
Brogan,  181. 
Bronko  patent,  57. 
Brushing,  181. 
Buckskin,  181. 
Buff,  181. 
Buffing,  181. 
Bull  hides,  16. 
Bunions,  84. 
Button  fly,  2. 
Butts,  9. 

Cable-nailing    machine, 

vention  of,  261. 
Cack,  182. 
Cadet  kid,  56. 

side,  57. 
Calf  leather,  boarded,  40. 

box,  40. 

classes  of,  40,  41. 

cadet  calf  side,  57. 

Dongola,  59. 

dry  hides,  40. 

French,  40. 


m- 


[281] 


INDEX 


mat,  40. 

Sheboygan,  59. 

storm,  40. 

suede,  40. 

wax,  40. 
Calf  side  leather,  57. 

skins,  39,  182. 
Calluses,  83. 
Cambridge  calf  union  splits, 

60. 
Cap,  182. 

Carbarettas,  51,  181. 
Carton,  182. 
Cementing,  182. 
Chamois,  182. 
Channeling,  183. 
Channel  screwed,  183. 

stitched,  183. 

turning,  184. 
Checking,  184. 
Chemical    tanning,   23,    24, 

25. 
Chrome  flexible  splits,  61. 

tannage,  25,  26. 

tanned    embossed    splits, 
.  62. 
Cleaning,  inside,  184. 

nails,  184. 

shoes,  184. 
Clicking,  184. 
Closing,  184. 

on,  184. 
Colonial,  185. 
Colorado  steer  hides,  9. 
Colored  box  chrome  side,  58. 
Coltskin,  41,  185. 
Combination  last,  185. 
Composition,  185. 
Congress  gaiter,  186. 
Cordovan,  186. 
Corns,  83,  84. 


Counter,  124,  186. 

pasted,  201. 
Coupon  tag,  187. 
Cowhide,  187. 

native,    heavy  and   light, 
7-9. 

branded,  9. 
Creasing  vamp,  187. 
Creedmore,  187. 
Creole,  187. 
Crimping,  188. 
Cushion  sole,  188. 
Cut-off  vamp,  188. 

Dyeing,  188. 
Dom  Pedro,  188. 
Dongola,  188. 

calf,  59. 
Dressing,  188. 
Dry  importation,  40,  41. 

salted  hides,  12,  32. 

Edge  setting,  188. 
trimming,  188. 
Enamel,  189. 
Eyelet,  189. 
Eyeletting,  189. 


Facing,  189. 

Factory  system,  first,  254. 
Fair  stitch,  189. 
Faking,  189. 
Fat  liquored,  27. 
Findings,  189. 

Finishes  of  upper  leather,  38. 
Finishing  of  upper  leather,  5. 
Flap,  190. 
Flesher,  18. 

Flesh  splits  leather,  38,  60. 
Flexible  bends,  61. 
splits,  61. 

[282] 


INDEX 


Follower,  190. 
Foot,  77. 

adult,  87. 

anatomy  of,  77,  78. 

astragalus,  78. 

calcaneum,  78. 

characteristics  of,  81. 

cuneiform,  79. 

flatfoot,  78. 

measurements  of,  95. 

metatarsal,  79. 

phalanges,  79. 

rheumatism,  79. 

structure  of,  86. 
Footwear,  history  of,  250. 
Forepart  finishing,  190. 
Form,  190. 
Foxed,  190. 
Foxing,  2,  190. 
Fresh  hides,  7. 
Frizzing,  191. 
Frout,  191. 
Fudge-stitched,  133. 
Fundamental     shoe     terms, 

1. 
Furniture  leather,  225. 
tanning  of,  226. 

Gaiter,  191. 

congress,  186. 
Gem  insoles,  191. 
Gemming,  191. 
Glazed  kid,  191. 
Gloves,  218. 

grain,  191. 

tanning,  221. 
Goatskin,  191. 
Goodyear  welt,  192. 

difference  between  McKay 
and,  145. 
Gore,  192. 


Grades  of  leather,  7. 
Grading,  192. 
Grain  leather,  38. 
Green  hides,  7. 
Green  salted,  12. 
Gum  counter,  247. 

Half  sole,  192. 
Harness  leather,  192= 
Heel,  192. 

breast  of,  3. 

finishing,  193. 

lining,  193. 

nailing,  194. 

nailing     machine,     inven- 
tion of,  262. 

pad,  193. 

scouring,  194. 

seat,  194. 

shaving,  194. 

trimming,  194. 
Hemlock  leather,  29. 

tanning,  29,  30,  194. 
Hercules  storm  chrome,  59. 
Hides,  4,  194. 

bull,  10,  63. 

classes  of,  5,  6. 

country,  10. 

dry,  12,  32. 

dry  importation,  40,  41. 

dry  salted,  12,  32. 

fresh,  7. 

grades  of,  7,  8,  9. 

green,  7. 

green  salted,  12,  32. 

imported,  32. 

quality  of,  6. 

Inlay,  194. 
Inner  sole,  247. 
Inseaming,  195. 


[283] 


INDEX 


Inseam  trimming,  195. 

Instep,  195. 

Iron,  195. 

Ironing  uppers,  196. 

Juliette,  196. 

Kid,  buckskin,  52. 

buff,  52. 

caster,  51. 

chamois,  52. 

characteristics  of,  49. 

Cordovan,  52. 

dull,  49. 

glazed,  49,  50. 

importation  of,  45. 

kangaroo,  52,  196. 

kangaroo  kid  side,  58. 

kinds  of  finish,  49. 

mat,  49,  50. 

method  of  collecting,  46- 
48. 

patent,  49. 

process  of  tanning,  49. 

seal  grain,  52. 

splits,  52. 

suede,  51. 
Kids,  41,  44,  196. 
Kips,  5,  196. 

Lace  hook,  196. 

stay,  2,  196. 
Lacing,  197. 
Lasting,  197. 
Lasts,  97,  197. 

combination,  185. 

how  made,  97. 
Laying  channel,  197. 
Leather,  4. 

automobile  and  furniture, 
226. 


belting,  62. 

effect  of  cold,  53. 

gloves,  218. 

glove  tanning,  221. 

harness,  192. 

hemlock,  29. 

products,  manufacture  of, 
218. 

white,  54. 
Leg  cover,  198. 

lining,  198. 
Leveling,  197. 
Lift,  197. 
Lining,  197. 
Lining-in,  198. 
Lip,  190. 
Loading  leather,  198. 

Mat  royal  chrome  side,  58. 
McKay  shoe,  144,  198,  199. 

difference  between   Good- 
year welt  and,  145. 

difference  between  turned 
and,  152. 
Middle  sole,  199. 
Mock  welt,  199. 
Molding,  199. 
Monkey  skin,  199. 
Morocco,  199. 
Mules,  199. 

Nap,  199. 

Native  cowhides,  9. 

steer  hides,  9. 
Naumkeaging,  199. 
Nullifier,  200. 


Oak-tanned  leather,  28,  200. 
Oak  tanning,  28,  29. 
Ohio  buffs,  10. 
Ooze  gusset  splits,  61. 

[284] 


INDEX 


leather,  200. 

vamp  splits,  62. 
Ottawa,  59. 

black  and  russet  splits,  60. 
Outer  filler,  247. 
Outside  cutting,  200. 

tap,-  200. 
Oxford,  200. 

calf  union  splits,  60. 

Packer  hides,  201. 

Packing,  201. 

Pacs,  201. 

Pancake,  201. 

Para,  248. 

Pasted  leather,  201. 

Patent  leather,  41-43,  201. 

black  hawk,  58. 

effect  of  cold  on,  43. 

objections  to,  44. 
Pattern,  201. 
Pebble,  202. 

Pegged  shoemaking,  160. 
Pegging,  202. 
Perforating,  118. 
Perforation,  202. 
Pickled  skins,  18. 
Piping,  248. 
Polish,  202. 
Porpoise,  202. 
Pressing,  202. 
Pulling  lasts,  202. 
Pulling  over,  202. 

machine,  127. 
Pump,  202. 

sole,  202. 


Quarter,  2,  203. 

Rag  counter,  248. 
Rand,  203. 


Rawhide  products,  67. 
Relasting,  203. 
Remnants,  33. 

sole  leather,  33-37. 
Repairing,  204. 
Roan,  204. 
Rolling,  204. 

machine,  invention  of,  257. 
Rough  rounding,  204. 
Royal  kid,  56. 
Royalties,  204. 
Royalty    system,   invention 

of,  260. 
Rubber,  228. 

cloth  manufacture,  244. 
commercial  grades  of,  228. 
drying,  232. 
heels,  241. 

shoe  manufacture,  228. 
calendering,  235. 
cutting,  235. 
varnishing,  237. 
vulcanizing,  237. 
washing,  231. 
Russet  calf,  204. 
grain,  204. 


Sabot,  204. 

Sack  lining,  204,  207. 

Sandal,  205,  250. 

Satin  calf,  205. 

Scouring  breast,  205. 

Screw  fastened,  205. 

Seal  grain,  205. 

Second  lasting,  205. 

Sewing    machine,    invention 

of,  257. 
Shank,  1,  205. 

burnishing,  206. 

finishing,  206. 
Shanking  out,  206. 

[285] 


INDEX 


Sheboygan  calf,  59. 
Sheepskin,  206. 
Sheep  tanning,  16,  17. 
Shoe,  103. 

apprentice,  253. 

case  of,  109. 

cutting  room,  112. 

departments  of,  103. 

dressing,  142. 

factories,  103. 

finishing,  138. 

heeling,  140. 

methods  of    manufacture, 
103. 

parts  of,  1. 

repairing,  167,  170. 

sizes,  85,  207. 

stitching,  119,  131. 

treeing,  140. 
Shoe    Machinery    Company, 
organization   of,   270. 
Shoemaker,  first,  in  America, 

251. 
Shoemaking,  162. 

old-fashioned,  162. 

nail  method,  161. 

terms  of,  177. 
Shoe  pegs,  invention  of,  257. 
Shoulder,  196. 
Sides,  206. 
Side  stay,  248. 
Skins,  6,  207. 
Skirting,  207. 
Skiver,  18,  207. 
Skiving  machine,  117. 
Slip,  207. 
Slugging,  207. 
Soaking  process,  13,  19. 
Soft  tip,  207. 
Sole,  11,  123,  208. 

leather,  27,  28,  208. 


laying,  208. 

breaking  of,  181. 
Sorting,  208. 
Spewing,  208. 
Splits,  11,  60-62,  209. 
Spring  heel,  209. 
Stamping,  209,  210. 
Standard  fastened,  210. 

screw  shoemaking,  160. 
Stay,  209. 
Staying,  210. 
Steer  hides,  native,  9. 
Stitch  aloft,  210. 
Stitch  down,  210. 

fair,  189. 

separating,  210. 
Stitching,  rapid,  203. 
Straight  last,  210. 
Stripping,  211. 
Styles,  how  made,  93. 
Suede,  211. 


Tacking  on,  211. 
Tack  pulling,  211. 
Tampico,  211. 
Tan,  211. 

royal,  56. 
Tanned  leather  adulterants, 
75. 

effects  of  perspiration,  71. 

lubrication,  72. 

properties,  70. 

substitutes,  73,  74,  76. 

weighing,  75. 
Tannin,  21. 
Tanning,  4,  21,  211. 

chemical,  21. 

hemlock,  29,  30. 

leather  for  belting,  64,  65, 
66. 

oak,  28,  29. 

[286] 


INDEX 


processes  of,  21. 

rapid  processes  of,  25. 

tawning,  21,  212. 

Union,  30,  31. 

vegetable,  21. 
Tap,  211. 

putting  on,  202. 

trimming,  212. 
Tawing,  212. 
Tempering,  212. 
Tennis     shoe     manufacture, 

239. 
Texas  steer  hide,  9. 
Tip,  2,  212. 

cutting,  212. 
Toe,  and  heel  lasting,  212. 

box,  181. 

filler,  248. 

lining,  248. 

piece,  213. 
Tongue,  2,  213. 
Top,  1,  213. 

cutting,  213. 

facing,  213. 

left,  213. 

left  scouring,  213. 

left  stitching,  213. 
Treeing,  213. 
Trimming  counter,  213. 

vamp,  213. 
Turned  shoe,  characteristics 
of,  156. 

difference     between     Mc- 
Kay and,  152. 

history  of,  158. 
Turning,  214. 

shoe,  151,  214. 

Ungrained,  214. 


Unhairing  of  hides,  15,  19. 
Union-tanned     leather,     30. 

31. 
Union  tanning,  30,  31. 
Upper,  1,  214. 
Upper  or  dress  leather,  37, 

38,  55-57. 

Vamp,  1,  214,  249. 

creasing,  187. 

cutting,  215. 

form,  249. 

short,  206. 
Vamping,  215. 
Vegetable  tanning,  22. 

tans,  22. 
Vellum,  215. 
Velour,  215. 
Veneering,  215. 
Vesting,  215. 
Vici,  216. 
Viscolizing,  216. 
Vulcanizing,  243. 

cold  cure,  243. 

steam  cure,  243. 

Wash  leather,  216. 
Waterproof  black,  58. 
Waxed  threads,  164. 
Web  straps,  249. 
Welts,  129,  216. 

beating,  217. 

Goodvear,  192. 
Welting,  217. 
White  alum,  217. 
Willow  calf  leather,  55. 
Wooden  case,  217. 

Zulu,  59. 


[287] 


1 

DATE  DUE 

UNIVERSITY  PRODUCTS,  INC.   #859-5503 

BOSTON  COLLEGE 


3  9031    028  26228  5 


